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Gold coin of Mahmud, struck at Naishapur in Khorasan, A.H. 402 (A.D. 1011–1012).

Chapter 2 – The Holy Wars of Islam Waged Against Hindustan by Sabuktagin and Mahmud of Ghazni

975–1030 A.D.

The Mohammedan conquest of India, as has been shown in the third volume of this series, was effected in reality not by the Arabs but by the Moslem Turks from Central Asia, who had settled in Afghanistan and made the mountain fortress of Ghazni their stronghold in the latter part of the tenth century. Sabuktagin, a slave by birth but a sovereign by achievement, ruled as lord of the Afghan tribes around his little kingdom of Ghazni (976–997 A.D.) and brought province after province under his imperial sway until he was prepared to invade north-western India. His sword had a double sanctification in this endeavour, since it was to be drawn to fight the battle for the faith under the crescent and green banner of Islam against the infidels and idolaters of Hindustan, and a rich reward of booty was also in prospect for the puissant commander. He advanced from Afghanistan into the

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fertile districts of the Panjab, triumphed over the Indian raja Jaipal, reduced him to temporary subjection and repeated the victorious inroad more than once. The way pointed out by Sabuktagin was followed by his son Mahmud of Ghazni, with true Mohammedan zeal and with still greater results, in a dozen or more successive invasions, and we have a good account of the various campaigns, written by an Arab historian Utbi, who was secretary to Sultan Mahmud up to the time of Mahmud’s death in 1030 A.D. Sir Henry Elliot translated selections from this Arabic chronicle, entitled “Tarikh-i Yamini,” and extracts from his version are here given to recount the history of these holy wars waged against Hindustan by two famous rulers of Afghanistan, as viewed through the eyes of a Mohammedan annalist:–

Sabuktagin, the ruler of Ghazni, in Afghanistan, made frequent expeditions into Hindustan in the prosecution of holy wars, and he conquered forts there upon lofty hills, in order to seize the treasures they contained, and expelled their garrisons. He took all the property in their treasuries, and captured cities in Hind, which had up to that time been tenanted only by infidels, and not trodden by the camels and horses of Mussulmans.

When Jaipal, the king of Hind, ascertained the calamity which had befallen him, and learned how Sabuktagin was taking different parts of the territory into his own possession and injuring all who opposed him in his projects of ambition, the deepest grief seized

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him and made him restless, and his lands became narrow under his feet, though their expanse was broad. Then he arose with his relations, and the generals of his army, and his vassals, and hastened with his huge elephants to wreak his revenge upon Sabuktagin, by treading the field of Islam under his feet, and doing dishonour to that which should be treated with respect. In this disposition he marched on until he passed Lamghan and approached the territory of Sabuktagin, trusting to his own resources and power, for Satan had laid an egg in Jaipal’s brain and hatched it; so that he waxed proud, entertaining absurd thoughts, and anticipating an immediate accomplishment of his wishes, impracticable as they were.

When the amir heard of Jaipal’s approach toward his territory, and of his great power, he girt up his loins to fight, and collecting his vassals and the Mohammedan forces whose duty it was to oppose infidels, he advanced from Ghazni against Jaipal, who was encamped between that place and Lamghan, with soldiers as black as night and as impetuous as a torrent. Yamin-ad-daulah Mahmud accompanied Amir Sabuktagin, his father, like a lion of the forest or a destructive eagle, and they attempted no difficult undertaking which they did not easily accomplish.

The armies fought several days successively against each other, and cups filled to the brim with blood, drawn from wounds inflicted by sword and spear, circulated among them till they were drunken. In consequence of the great fear which fell upon Jaipal, who confessed

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Species of Indian dagger

he had seen death before the appointed time, he sent a deputation to the amir, promising to pay down a sum of money if he might have peace, and offering to obey any order he might receive respecting his elephants and his country. The Amir Sabuktagin consented on account of the mercy he felt toward those who were his vassals, or for some other reason which seemed expedient to’ him. The Sultan Yami-n-ad-daulah Mahmud, however, addressed the messengers in a harsh voice, and refused to abstain from battle until he should obtain a complete victory suited to his zeal for the honour of Islam and of Mussulmans, and one which he was confident God would grant to his arms. They returned, therefore, and Jaipal, being in great alarm, again sent most humble supplications that the battle might cease.

When the amir received this conciliatory message and knew what Jaipal would do in his despair, he thought that religion and the views of the faithful would best be consulted by peace and the acquisition of tribute. The Amir Mahmud accordingly agreed with Sabuktagin as to the propriety of withdrawing the hand of vengeance, on condition of the immediate receipt of a million dirhams of royal stamp and fifty elephants, in addition to some cities and forts in the midst of his country. Jaipal was to deliver these forts to the officers nominated by the amir, and was to send

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hostages from among his relatives and friends to remain with the amir until the terms of surrender were fulfilled. The amir sent two deputies with Jaipal to see that he did not swerve from his engagements, and they were accompanied by confidential officers who were to take charge of the places which were ceded.

When Jaipal had marched to a great distance and thought that the demand upon him had relaxed, his evil disposition prompted him to break his engagements, and his folly made him beget enmity, insomuch that he imprisoned those who accompanied him on the part of the amir, in reprisal for those of his relations whom the amir had taken as hostages.

When this intelligence reached the amir, he considered it false, as being opposed to the usual habits of Jaipal; but after repeated accounts to the same effect had been brought, the veil which obscured the truth was withdrawn, and he knew that God had set his seal upon Jaipal’s heart, so that he might obtain the reward of his evil deeds. The Sultan, therefore, sharpened the sword of intention in order to make an incursion upon his kingdom, and to cleanse it from impurity and from his rejection of Islam. He accordingly departed with his valiant servants and allies, relying upon the one God, and trusting in the fulfilment of the promise of victory; and he went on till he arrived with his troops in the country of Hind, where he killed every one who came out to oppose him on the part of Jaipal.

The amir marched toward Lamghan, which is a city

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Hindu Idols

celebrated for its great strength and abounding in wealth. He conquered it, and after setting fire to the places in its vicinity which were inhabited by infidels, he demolished the idol-temples and established Islam in them. He also captured other cities and killed the polluted wretches, destroying the idolatrous and gratifying the Mussulmans.

After wounding and killing beyond all measure, his own hands and those of his friends became cold in counting the value of the plundered property. On the completion of his conquest, he returned and promulgated accounts of the victories obtained for Islam, and every one, great and small, concurred in rejoicing over this result and thanking God.

When Jaipal saw what had befallen him on account of the infraction of his engagements, he became greatly agitated, and knew not whether to retire or

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advance. He at last determined to fight once more and satisfy his revenge. Thereupon he collected troops to the number of more than one hundred thousand, and when Amir Sabuktagin heard of this, he again advanced to fight him, and ascended a lofty hill, from which he could see the whole army of the infidels, which resembled scattered ants and locusts. He urged the Mussulmans against the infidels, and they willingly obeyed his orders. He made detachments of five hundred attack the enemy with their maces in hand, and relieve each other when one party became tired, so that fresh men and horses were constantly engaged, till the accursed enemy complained of the heat which arose from that iron oven. These detached parties then made one united charge to exterminate their numerous opponents. Officers and men mingled in close conflict, and all weapons were useless except the sword. The dust which arose prevented the eyes from seeing; swords could not be distinguished from spears, men from elephants, or heroes from cowards. It was only when the dust was allayed that it was found that the infidels had fled, leaving behind them their property, utensils, arms, provisions, elephants, and horses. The jungles were filled with the carcasses of the infidels, some wounded by the sword, and others fallen dead through fright.

The Hindus were like frightened curs, and the raja was glad to offer the best things in his most distant provinces to the conqueror, on condition that the hair on the crowns of their heads should not be shaved off. The country in that neighbourhood thus became clear

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Afghan Types

and open before Amir Sabuktagin, and he seized all the wealth which was found in it. He levied tribute and obtained immense booty, besides two hundred elephants of war. He increased his army, and since the Afghans and Khaljis had submitted to him, he admitted thousands of them into the ranks of his army whenever he wished, and thereafter expended their lives in his service.

Having given this account of Sabuktagin’s invasion of Hindustan, the Arab chronicle proceeds to describe the continuation of the holy wars against the idol-worshipping Hindus carried on by Sabuktagin’s famous son, Mahmud of Ghazni, under the sanction of the Caliph of Baghdad:–

Kadir bi-Allah, the Caliph of Baghdad, sent a robe of honour, such as had never before been heard of, for the use of Sultan Saif-ad-daulah, and he addressed Mahmud in his imperial rescript as “Yamin-ad-daulah, Commander of the Faith, and friend of the Commander

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of the Faithful,” a title which had never yet been bestowed upon any prince, either far or near, notwithstanding their intense desire to receive such an honour. The Sultan sat on his throne and vested himself with his new robe, professing his allegiance to the successor of the prophet of God. The amirs of Khorasan stood before him in order, with respectful demeanour, and did not take their seats till so directed. He then bestowed upon the nobles, his slaves, his confidential servants, and his chief friends valuable robes and choice presents, beyond all calculation, and vowed that every year he would undertake a holy war against Hind

Sultan Mahmud at first designed to go to Seistan, but subsequently preferred to engage in a holy war against Hind. He accordingly distributed arms before convening a council on the subject, that he might secure a blessing on his designs of exalting the standard of religion, of widening the plain of right, of illumining the words of truth, and of strengthening the power of justice. He departed toward the country of Hind in full reliance on the aid of God, who guided him by his light and power, bestowed dignity upon him, and gave him victory in all his expeditions. When he reached Peshawar, he pitched his tent outside the city. There he received intelligence of the bold resolve of Jaipal, the king of Hind and the enemy of God, to offer opposition, and of his rapid advance to meet his fate on the field of battle. He then took a muster of his horses and of all his warriors and their vassals, after which

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he selected from among his troops fifteen thousand cavalry and strictly prohibited those who were rejected and not fit or disposed for war, from joining those who had been chosen; and who were like dragons of the desert and lions of the forest. With them he advanced against the wicked and accursed enemy, whose hearts were firm as hills, and were as twigs of patience on the boughs of affection. The villainous infidel came forward, proud in his strength of head and arm, with twelve thousand horsemen, thirty thousand foot-soldiers, and three hundred elephants, at whose ponderous weight the lighter earth groaned, little reflecting that, under the dispensation of God, a small army can overturn a host, as the ignorant man would have learnt, if he could have read the word of God, which says: “Oftentimes a small army overcomes a large one by the order of God.”

That infidel remained where he was, avoiding action for a long time, and craftily awaiting the arrival of reinforcements; but Sultan Mahmud would not allow him to postpone the conflict, and the Mussulmans commenced the action, assailing the enemy with sword, arrow, and spear – plundering, seizing, and destroying; at all which the Hindus, being greatly alarmed, began to kindle the flame of fight. Jaipal now set his cavalry in and beat his drums. The elephants moved on from their posts, and line advanced against line, shooting their arrows at one another, while swords flashed like lightning amid the blackness of clouds, and fountains of blood flowed like the fall of setting stars. The Mussulmans

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defeated their obstinate opponents, and quickly put them to a complete rout. Noon had not arrived when they had wreaked their vengeance on the enemies of God, killing fifteen thousand of them, spreading them like a carpet over the ground, and making them food for beasts and birds of prey. Fifteen elephants fell on the field of battle, as their legs, being pierced with arrows, became as motionless as if they had been in a quagmire, and their trunks were cut with the swords of the valiant heroes.

An Indian necklace

The enemies of God, Jaipal, his children and grandchildren, his nephews, the chief men of his tribe, and his relatives, were taken prisoners, and being strongly bound with ropes, were carried before the Sultan. Some had their arms forcibly tied behind their backs, some were seized by the cheek, some were driven by blows on the neck. From Jaipal’s throat was taken a necklace composed of large pearls and shining gems and rubies set in gold, the value of which was two hundred thousand dinars; and twice that value was obtained from the necks of those of his relatives who were taken prisoners or slain. God also bestowed upon his friends such an amount of booty as was beyond all bounds and all calculation, including five hundred thousand slaves,

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beautiful men and women. The Sultan returned with his followers to his camp, thankful to God, the lord of the universe, who had given them victory over a province of the country of Hind broader and longer and more fertile than Khorasan. This splendid and celebrated action took place on Thursday, the eighth of Muharram, 392 A.H. (November 27, 1001 A.D.).

After the victory, Sultan Mahmud directed that the polluted infidel Jaipal should be paraded about, so that his sons and chieftains might see him in that condition of shame, bonds, and disgrace, and that the fear of Islam might fly abroad through the country of the misbelievers. He then entered into conditions of peace with him, after demanding fifty elephants, and took from him his son and grandson as hostages till he should fulfil the terms imposed upon him.

The infidel returned to his own country and remained there, and wrote to his son Andpal, whose territory, on which he prided himself, was on the other side of the Indus, explaining the dreadful calamity which had befallen him, and beseeching him with many entreaties to send the elephants which were to be given to the Sultan according to agreement. Upon this, And-pal sent the elephants to Jaipal, and they were delivered over to the Sultan. The Sultan, therefore, ordered the release of the hostages, and his myrmidons gave them a sound thump, telling them to return to their own country.

Andpal reflected that his father, Jaipal, had put on

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the sheaf of old age and had fallen under the influence of Lyra and other unlucky constellations, and that it was time he should contemplate his death and devote himself to religious exercises. There is a custom among these people that if anyone is taken prisoner by an enemy, as in this case Jaipal was by the Mussulmans, it is not lawful for him to continue to reign. When, therefore, Jaipal saw that he was captive in the prison of old age and degradation, he thought death by cremation preferable to shame and dishonour. So he commenced with shaving off his hair, and then threw himself upon the fire till he was burnt.

When Sultan Mahmud had accomplished every wish and reduced all his enemies, he resolved, in his happiness, on another holy war. Marching toward Waihind, he encamped there in state, until he had established himself in that country and had relieved himself from the toils of the campaign. News reached him that the Hindus had taken refuge in the passes of the neighbouring hills, where they had concealed themselves in the forests and jungles, consulting among themselves how to attack the Mussulmans. He therefore despatched an army against them, to conquer their country and disperse them. The army fell upon them, and committed such slaughter that their swords were covered with blood. Those who escaped death fled away like mountain goats, having seen the swords flashing as bright as stars at noonday and dealing black and red death around them. Thus did the infidels meet with the punishment and loss due to their deserts. The standards

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The river Indus at Attok.

of the Sultan then returned happy and victorious to Ghazni, the face of Islam was made resplendent by his exertions, the teeth of the true faith displayed themselves in their laughter, the breasts of religion expanded, and the back of idolatry was broken.

When Sultan Mahmud had settled the affairs of Seistan, and when the action of his beating pulse had subsided and the clouds had dispersed, he determined to invade Bhatia. He accordingly collected armies with trustworthy guides and valiant standard-bearers, and crossing the Indus in the neighbourhood of Multan, he marched toward the city of Bhatia, whose walls the wings of the eagle could not surmount, and which was surrounded as by the ocean with a ditch of exceeding

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depth and breadth. The city was as wealthy as imagination can conceive in property, armies, and weapon’s of war. There were elephants as headstrong as Satan. The ruler at that time was Biji Rai, and the pride which he felt in the state of his preparations induced him to leave the walls of his fort and come forth to oppose the Mussulmans, that he might frighten them with his warriors and elephants and great prowess.

The Sultan fought against him for three days and nights, and the lightnings of his swords and the meteors of his spears fell on the enemy. On the fourth morning a most furious onslaught was made with swords and arrows which lasted till noon, when Mahmud ordered a general charge to be made upon the infidels. The Mussulmans, advancing against the masters of lies and idolatry with cries of “God is exceeding great!” broke their ranks, and rubbed their noses upon the ground of disgrace. The Sultan himself, like a stallion, dealt hard blows around him on the right hand and on the left, and cut in twain those who were clothed in mail, making the thirsty infidels drink the cup of death. In this single charge he took several elephants, which Biji Rai regarded as the chief support of his centre. At last God granted victory to the standards of Islam, and the infidels retreated behind the walls of their city for protection. The Mussulmans obtained possession of the gates of the city, and employed themselves in filling up the ditch and destroying the scarp and counterscarp, widening the narrow roads and opening the closed entrances.

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When Biji Rai saw the desperate plight to which he was reduced, he escaped by stealth and on foot into the forest with a few attendants and sought refuge on the top of some hills. Mahmud despatched a select body of his troops in pursuit of them, and when Biji Rai saw that there was no chance of escape, he drew his dagger, struck it into his breast, and went to the fire which God has lighted for infidels and those who deny a resurrection, for those who say no prayers, hold no fasts, and tell no beads.

The army of the Sultan kept moving on and committing slaughter and pillage. One hundred and twenty elephants fell to the share of the Sultan, besides the usual share of property and arms. He also obtained an accession of territory without any solicitation. He remained at Bhatia till he had cleansed it from pollution, and appointed a person there to teach those who had embraced Islam and to lead them in the right way. He then returned to Ghazni in triumph and glory, and his fortune was in the ascendent; but since his return was during the rains, when the rivers were full and foaming, and as the mountains were lofty, and he had to fight with enemies, he lost the greater part of his baggage in the rivers, and many of his valiant warriors were dispersed. God, nevertheless, preserved his person, for God is the friend of the virtuous.

Intelligence reached Mahmud of the acts committed by Abi-al-futuh, the ruler of Multan, and also of the impurity of his religion, the seditious designs of his heart, the evidence of his evil doings, and his endeavours

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to make proselytes of the inhabitants of his country. The Sultan, zealous for the Mohammedan religion, thought it a shame to allow him to retain his government while he practised such wickedness and disobedience, and he besought the assistance of a gracious God in bringing him to repentance, and in attacking him with that end in view.

Exterior of Sultan Mahmud’s tomb at Ghazni

He then issued orders to assemble an army from among the Mussulmans for the purpose of joining him in this holy expedition, and departed with them toward Multan in the spring, when the rivers were swollen with the rain, and when the Indus and other rivers prevented the passage of the cavalry, and offered difficulties to his companions. The Sultan desired Andpal, the chief of Hind, to allow him to march through his territory, but Andpal would not consent, and offered opposition, which resulted in his discomfiture. The Sultan, consequently, thought it expedient to attack Rai Andpal

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first, notwithstanding his power, to bow down his broad neck, to cut down the trees of his jungles, to destroy everything he possessed, and thus to obtain the fruit of two, paradises by this double conquest.

He accordingly stretched out upon him the hand of slaughter, imprisonment, pillage, depopulation, and fire, and hunted him from ambush to ambush, into which he was followed by his subjects. The spears were wearied with penetrating the rings of the coats of mail, the swords became blunt by the blows on the sides, and the Sultan pursued the raja over hill and dale, until his followers either became a feast to the rapacious wild beasts of the passes and plains or fled in distraction to the neighbourhood of Kashmir.

When Abi-al-futuh, the ruler of Multan, heard what had happened to the chief of Hind, notwithstanding all his power and the lofty walls of his fort, and despite his shining sword, and when he began to measure their relative strength and considered how Andpal, a much greater potentate than himself, had been subdued, he looked upon himself, as compared with Sultan Mahmud, as a ravine in comparison with the top of a mountain. He therefore determined to load all his property on elephants, and carry it off to Sarandip, and he left Multan empty for the Sultan to deal with as he chose. Mahmud accordingly invested Multan, took it by assault, treated the people with severity, and levied from them twenty thousand thousand dirhams with which to respite their sins. The reports of Sultan Mahmud’s

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conquests then spread over distant countries, and over the salt sea, even as far as Egypt. Sind and her sister Hind trembled at his power and vengeance; and his fame exceeded that of Alexander the Great, and heresy, rebellion, and enmity were suppressed.

When Sultan Mahmud heard that Ilak Khan had crossed the Jihun with fifty thousand men or more, he hastened from Tokharistan to Balkh, where he remained to anticipate Ilak Khan, who wished to obtain supplies from that province. The Sultan advanced ready for action with an army composed of Turks, Hindus, Khaljis, Afghans, and Ghaznavids, and after routing Bak Khan disastrously, he resolved to, go to Hind to make a sudden attack upon Nawasa Shah, one of the rulers of Hind, who had been established as governor over some of the territories in the country conquered by the Sultan. Satan had got the better of Nawasa Shah, however, for he had thrown off the mantle of Islam and held converse with the chiefs of idolatry, designing to cast the firm rope of religion from his neck. The Sultan, therefore, went in that direction more swiftly than the wind and made the sword reek with the blood of his enemies. He turned Nawasa Shah out of his government, took possession of all the treasures which he had accumulated, resumed. his sceptre, and then cut down the harvest of idolatry with the sickle of his sword and spear, after which he returned without difficulty to Ghazni.

Contrary to the disposition of man, which induces him to prefer a soft couch to a hard one and the splendour

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of the cheeks of pomegranate-bosomed girls to well-tempered sword-blades, Sultan Mahmud was so incensed at the standard which Satan had raised in Hind, that he determined to wage another holy war against that land.

An Afghan boy

On the last day of Rabi’-al-akhir of the same year, he prayed to God for the fulfilment of his wishes. When he reached the river of Waihind,

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Fort of Jodhpur

he was met by Brahmanpal, the son of Andpal, at the head of a valiant army, with white swords, blue spears, yellow coats of mail, and ash-coloured elephants. Battle opened its crooked teeth, attacks like flaming meteors were frequent, arrows fell like rain from bows, and the grinding-stone of slaughter revolved, crushing the bold and the powerful. The battle lasted from morning till evening, and the infidels had well-nigh gained the victory, when God brought aid by sending the slaves of the household to attack the enemy in the rear and to put them to flight. The victors obtained thirty large elephants and slew the vanquished wherever they were found in jungles, passes, plains, and hills.

The Sultan himself joined in the pursuit and went after them as far as the fort called Bhimnagar, which is very strong, being situated on the promontory of a lofty hill and in the midst of impassable waters.

He brought his army under the fort and surrounded it, and prepared to attack the garrison vigorously, boldly, and wisely. When the defenders saw the hills covered with the armies of plunderers and perceived the arrows ascending toward them like flaming sparks of fire, great fear came upon them and they opened the gates, entreating mercy, and fell on the earth like sparrows before a hawk or rain before lightning. The Sultan entered the fort with Abu Nasr Ahmad ibn Mohammad Farghuni, the ruler of Juzjan, and all his private attendants, and appointed his two chief chamberlains,

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Altuntash and Asightigin, to take care of the treasures of gold and silver and all the valuable property, while he himself assumed charge of the jewels. The treasures were laden on the backs of as many camels as they could procure, and the officers carried away the rest. The stamped coin amounted to seventy thousand thousand royal dirhams, and the gold and silver ingots were 700,400 mans in weight, besides wearing-apparel and fine cloths of Sus, respecting which old men said they never remembered to have seen any so fine, soft, and embroidered. Among the booty was a house of white silver, like to the houses of the rich, which was thirty yards in length and fifteen in breadth. It could be taken to pieces and put together again. There was also a canopy, made of fine Byzantine linen, forty yards long and twenty broad, supported on two golden and two silver poles, which had been cast in moulds.

Sultan Mahmud thereupon appointed one of his most confidential servants to take charge of the fort and the property in it. After this he returned to Ghazni in triumph; and on his arrival there, he ordered the courtyard of his palace to be covered with a carpet, on which he displayed jewels and unbored pearls and rubies, shining like sparks or like wine congealed with ice, and emeralds like fresh sprigs of myrtle, and diamonds like pomegranates in size and weight. Thereupon, ambassadors from foreign countries, including the envoy from Taghan Khan, King of Turkistan, assembled to see such wealth as they had never even

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Interior of Sultan Mahmud’s Tomb at Ghazni

read of in books of the ancients and whose like had never been accumulated by kings of Persia or of Greece.

The Sultan again resolved on an expedition to Hind, and marching toward Narain, he moved over ground, hard and soft, until he came to the middle of Hind, where he reduced chiefs who up to that time had obeyed no master, overthrew their idols, put the vagabonds of that country to the sword, and with delay and circumspection proceeded to accomplish his design.

He fought a battle with the chiefs of the infidels, in which God granted him much booty in property, horses, and elephants, and the Mussulmans committed slaughter in every hill and valley. The Sultan returned to Ghazni with all the plunder he had obtained.

When the ruler of Hind witnessed the calamities

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which had inflicted ruin on his country and his subjects in consequence of his contests with Mahmud, and saw their effects far and near, he became satisfied that he could not war against him. He accordingly sent some of his relatives and chiefs to the Sultan, imploring him not to invade India again and offering him money to abstain from that purpose. The envoys were told to yield a tribute of fifty elephants, each equal to two ordinary ones in size and strength, laden with the products and rarities of the country. The King of Hind promised to send this tribute every year, accompanied by two thousand men for service at the court of the Sultan.

Mahmud accepted his proposal, since Islam was promoted by the humility of his submission and by the payment of tribute, and sent an envoy to see that these conditions were carried into effect. The ruler of Hind fulfilled them strictly and despatched one of his vassals with the elephants to see that they were duly presented to the Sultan. Thus peace was established and tribute was paid, and caravans travelled in full security between Khorasan and Hind.

When the Sultan had purified Hind from idolatry and had raised mosques therein, he determined to invade the capital of the land, that he might punish those who kept idols and refused to acknowledge the unity of God. After collecting his warriors and distributing money among them, he set forth with a large army in the year 404 A.H. (1013 A.D.), choosing the close of autumn for his expedition on account of the

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purity of the southern breezes at that season. When he arrived near the frontier of Hind, snow fell such as had never been seen before, insomuch that the passes of the hills were closed, and the mountains and valleys became of one level. The roads were concealed, and the right could not be distinguished from the left, or what was behind from that which was before, and they were unable to return until God should give command. In the meantime the Sultan employed himself in collecting supplies, and summoned his generals from the different provinces. Having thus accumulated the means of warfare and having been joined by his soldiers, who had come from different directions, and who were equal in number to the drops of an autumnal rain, he left these winter quarters in the spring, and, had the earth been endowed with feeling, it would have groaned beneath the weight of the iron, the warriors, the horses, and the beasts of burden. The guides marched on in front over hill and dale before the sun arose and even before the light of the stars was extinguished. He urged on his horses for two months, among broad and deep rivers and among jungles in which even wild cattle might lose their way.

When the Sultan drew near the end of his destination, he set his cavalry in array and formed them into different bodies, appointing his brother, Amir Nasr, to command the right wing, consisting of valiant heroes; Arslan-al-Jazib to the left wing, consisting of powerful young men; and Abu Abdallah Mohammad ibn Ibrahim-at-Tai to the vanguard, consisting of fiery Arab

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A sketch of the Khaibar Pass

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Blank page

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cavaliers. To the centre he appointed Altuntash the chamberlain, together with his personal slaves and attendants, as firm as mountains.

Nidar Bhim, the enemy of God and the chief of Hind, alarmed at this sudden invasion, summoned his vassals and generals and took refuge within a pass, which vas narrow, precipitous, and inaccessible. They intrenched themselves behind stones and closed the entrance to the pass by their elephants, which looked like so many hills because of their lofty stature. Here he remained in great security, being persuaded that the place was impervious to attack, but he did not know that God is the protector of the faithful and the annihilator of infidels!

When Mahmud learned that Nidar Bhim intended to prolong the war, he advanced against him with his Dailamite warriors and Afghan spearmen, who penetrated the pass like gimlets into wood, ascending the hills like mountain goats and descending them like torrents of water. The action lasted for several days without intermission, till at last some of the Hindus were drawn out into the plain to fight, where they were attacked and killed by the cavalry, just. as the knight on the chess-board demolishes pawns.

When his vassals had joined Nidar Bhim with reinforcements, he consented to leave his intrenchments and come into the plain, having the hills behind him, and the elephants drawn up on each wing. The battle raged furiously, and when the elephants of the Hindus advanced to destroy their opponents, they were assailed

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by showers of arrows upon their trunks and eyes. When Abu Abdallah had bravely advanced into the midst of the infidels, he was wounded in his head and body; but Sultan Mahmud, seeing the extreme danger to which his general was exposed, despatched some of his own guards to his assistance, and they rescued him from the conflict They then brought him to the Sultan, who ordered him to be placed on an elephant to relieve him from the pain of his wounds, and thus he was exalted like a king above all the leaders of the army.

The conflict continued as before until God blew the gale of victory on his friends, and the enemy were slain on the tops of the hills, and in the valleys, ravines, and beds of torrents. A large number of elephants, which the enemy had regarded as strongholds to protect them, fell into the hands of the victors, as well as much other booty. Thus God granted the Sultan the victory of Nardin and added to the adornment of the mantle of Islam, which had not hitherto extended to that place. On his return, the Sultan marched in the rear of his immense booty, and slaves were so plentiful that they became very cheap; and men of respectability in their native land were degraded by becoming slaves of common shopkeepers. But this is the goodness of God, who bestows honours on his own religion and degrades infidelity.

Sultan Mahmud learned that in the country of Thanesar there were large elephants of the Ceylon breed, celebrated for military purposes. On this account the

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chief of Thanesar was obstinate in his infidelity and denial of God. The Sultan marched against him, therefore, with his valiant warriors, for the purpose of planting the standards of Islam and extirpating idolatry. He marched through a desert which had never yet been crossed, save by birds and wild beasts, for the foot of man and the shoe of horse had not traversed it. There was no water in it, much less any other kind of food. The Sultan was the first to whom God had granted a passage over this desert, in order that he might attain the fulfilment of his wishes.

Beneath Thanesar flowed a pure stream; the bottom was covered with large stones, and the banks were precipitous and sharp as the points of arrows. The Sultan reached this river at a place where it takes its course through a hill-pass, behind which the infidels posted themselves, in the rear of their elephants. The Sultan adopted the stratagem of sending some of his troops to cross the river by two different fords and attack the enemy on both sides; and when they were all engaged in close conflict, he ordered another body of men to go up the bank of the stream, which was flowing through the pass with fearful impetuosity, and to attack the enemy among the ravines, where they were posted in the greatest number. The battle raged fiercely, but about evening, after a vigorous attack on the part of the Mussulmans, the enemy fled, leaving their elephants, which were all driven into the camp of the Sultan, except one, which ran off and could not be found. The largest were reserved for the Sultan.

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Indian Armour

The blood of the infidels flowed so copiously that the stream was discoloured, notwithstanding its purity, and people were unable to drink it. Had not night come on and concealed the traces of their flight, many more of the enemy would have been slain. The victory Of was gained by God’s grace, who has established Islam for ever as the best of religions, notwithstanding that idolaters revolt against it. The Sultan returned with plunder which it is impossible to enumerate. Praise be to God, the protector of the world, for the honour He bestows upon Islam and Mussulmans!

As no part of Hind remained unconquered except Kashmir, the Sultan Mahmud resolved on an expedition to that country. It happened that twenty thousand men from Mawara-an-nahr and its neighbourhood, who were with the Sultan, were anxious to be employed in a holy war, and the Sultan accordingly determined to march with them toward Kanauj, which no other

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king but the all-powerful Gushtasp had been able to take, as has been related in certain histories of the Magians.

Between Ghazni and Kanauj the journey occupies three months, even for camels and horses. The Sultan therefore bade farewell to sleep and ease, and praying to God for success, he departed with his valiant warriors. He safely crossed the Sihun (Indus), Jihlam, Chandraha, Ubra (Ravi), Bah (Biyah), and Sataldur (Sutlaj). All these rivers are deep beyond description; even elephants’ bodies are concealed in them, so it may easily be imagined what is the case with horses. The currents of these streams carry along large stones, so that camels and horses are in danger of being swept down the stream. In every country traversed by the Sultan, ambassadors were sent to him proffering submission, insomuch that Sabli ibn Shahi ibn Bamhi, who held the passes leading into Kashmir, also came forward, offering his allegiance and his services as a guide. He led the way, crossing forest after forest. At midnight the drum sounded for the march, and the Mussulmans mounted their horses, ready to bear the inconvenience of the journey; and they marched on until the sun began to decline from the meridian. On the twentieth of Rajab, 409 A.H. (December 2, 1018 A.D.), they crossed the river Jumna.

The Sultan took all the lofty hill forts which he passed on the road, and at length arrived at the fort of Baran in the country of Hardat. When Hardat heard of this invasion by the warriors of God, who advanced

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like the waves of the sea, he became greatly agitated, his steps trembled, and he feared for his life, which was forfeit under the law of God. He accordingly reflected that his safety would best be secured by conforming to the religion of Islam, since the sword of God was drawn from the scabbard and the whip of punishment was uplifted. He came forth, therefore, with ten thousand men, all of whom proclaimed their anxiety for conversion and their rejection of idols. God confirmed the promises He had made, and rendered assistance to the Sultan Mahmud.

After some delay the Sultan marched against a fort held by Kulchand, who had assumed superiority over other rulers and was inflated with pride, and who employed his whole life in infidelity and was confident in the strength of his dominions. Whoever fought with him sustained defeat and flight, and he possessed much power, great wealth, many brave soldiers, large elephants, and strong forts, which were secure from attack and capture. When he saw that the Sultan advanced against him in the endeavour to engage in a holy war, he drew up his army and elephants within a deep forest ready for action.

Sultan Mahmud sent an advance-guard to attack Kulchand, and this vanguard, penetrating through the forest like a comb through a head of hair, enabled the Sultan to discover the road which led to the fort. The Mussulmans exclaimed, “God is exceeding great,” and those of the enemy, who were anxious for death, stood their ground. Swords and spears were used in

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close conflict, but when the infidels found all their efforts were in vain, they deserted the fort and tried to cross the foaming river which flowed on the other side of their stronghold, thinking that beyond it they would be in security; but nearly fifty thousand of them were slain, taken, or drowned in the attempt, and went to the fire of hell. Kulchand himself, drawing his dagger, slew his wife, and then drove it into his own body. By this victory the Sultan obtained 185 powerful elephants, besides other booty.

An Indian Dagger

The Sultan then departed from the environs of the city, in which was a temple of the Hindus. The name of this place was Maharat-al-Hind (Alathura). The wall of the city was constructed of hard stone, and two gates, erected upon strong and lofty foundations to protect them against the floods of the river and the rains, opened on the stream which flowed beneath the town. On both sides of the city there were a thousand houses to which idol-temples were attached, all strengthened from top to bottom by rivets of iron, and all made of masonry work; and opposite them were other buildings, supported on broad wooden pillars to give them strength.

In the middle of the city there was a temple larger and firmer than the rest, which can neither be described nor painted. The Sultan wrote thus concerning it:

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“If any one should wish to construct a building equal to this, he would not be able to do it without expending a hundred thousand thousand red dinars, and it would occupy two hundred years, even though the most experienced and able workmen were employed.” Among the idols there were five made of red gold, each five yards high, fixed in the air without support. In the eyes of one of these idols there were two rubies of such value that if any one were to sell such as are like them, he would obtain fifty thousand dinars. On another there was a sapphire purer than water and more sparkling than crystal; the weight was 450 miskals (nearly six pounds Troy). The feet of another idol weighed 4,400 miskals (nearly fifty-six pounds Troy), and the entire quantity of gold yielded by the bodies of these idols was 98,300 miskals (almost 1,246 pounds Troy). The idols of silver amounted to two hundred, but they could not be weighed without breaking them to pieces and putting them into scales. The Sultan gave orders that all the temples should be burnt with naphtha and fire, and levelled to the ground.

After this, the Sultan went on with the intention of proceeding to Kanauj. He left the greater part of his army behind and took only a small body of troops with him against Rai Jaipal, who also had but a few men with him and was preparing to fly for safety to some of his dependent vassals.

The Sultan levelled to the ground every fort which Jaipal had in this country and the inhabitants either accepted Islam or took arms against Mahmud. He collected

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so much booty, prisoners, and wealth that the fingers of those who counted them would have been tired.

On the eighth of Sha’ban he arrived at Kanauj, which was deserted by Jaipal on hearing of his approach, for he fled across the Ganges, which the Hindus regard as of exceeding sanctity, and as having its source in the paradise of heaven. When they burn their dead, they throw the ashes into this river, as they believe that its waters purify them from sin. Devotees even come to it from a distance and drown themselves in its stream in the hope of obtaining eternal salvation, but in the end it will only carry them to hell, so that it will neither kill them nor make them alive.

The Sultan advanced to the fortifications of Kanauj, which consisted of seven distinct forts, washed by the Ganges which flowed under them like the ocean. In Kanauj there were nearly ten thousand temples, which the idolaters asserted had been founded by their ancestors two or three hundred thousand years ago. They worshipped and offered their vows and supplications to them in consequence of their great antiquity. Many of the inhabitants of the place fled and were scattered abroad like so many wretched widows and orphans from the fear which oppressed them in consequence of witnessing the fate of their deaf and dumb idols. Many of them thus effected their escape and those who did not fly were put to death. The Sultan took all seven forts in one day and gave his soldiers leave to plunder them and take prisoners.

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A burning-ghat on the bank of the Ganges at Benares

He then went to Munj, known as the fort of Brahmans, the inhabitants of which were independent as headstrong camels.

They prepared to offer opposition like evil demons and obstinate Satans, and when they found they could not withstand the Mussulmans and that their blood would be shed, they took to flight, throwing themselves down from the apertures and the broad and lofty battlements, but most of them were killed in this attempt.

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After this, Mahmud advanced against the fort of Asi, which was ruled by Chandal Bhor, one of the chief men and generals of the Hindus. Around his fort there were broad and deep ditches, as well as an impenetrable and dense jungle, full of snakes which no enchanters could tame and so dark that even the rays of the full moon could not be discerned in it.

When Chandal heard of the advance of the Sultan, he lost heart from excess of fear, and as he saw death with his mouth open toward him, he had no resource but flight. The Sultan therefore ordered that his five forts should be demolished to their very foundations, the inhabitants buried in the ruins, and the soldiers of the garrison plundered, slain, and imprisoned.

Hearing of the flight of Chandal, the Sultan was sorely afflicted and turned his horse’s head toward Chand Rai, one of the greatest men in Hind, who resided in the fort of Sharwa.

Between him and Puru Jaipal there had been constant battles, in which many men and warriors had fallen in the field, so that at last they made peace to prevent further bloodshed and invasion of their respective borders. Puru Jaipal sought his old enemy’s daughter that he might give her in marriage to his son Bhimpal, thus cementing the peace between them forever. He sent his son to obtain his bride from Chand Rai, but the latter imprisoned the son and demanded retribution for the losses which had been inflicted by the father. Jaipal was thus compelled to refrain from proceeding against Chand Rai’s fort and country, being unable

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The Sacred Ganges at Benares

The Ganges is the holy river of India. and the Mohammedan writers were correct when they said that the Hindus regard it as a river “of exceeding sanctity and as having its source in the paradise of heaven” (see p. 69). During the wars waged by Islam, as in earlier invasions, its waters were often reddened with Brahman blood, shed by Moslem swords.

to release his son; but constant skirmishes occurred between them until the arrival of Sultan Mahmud in those parts, who, through the kindness of God, had wish after wish gratified in a succession of conquests.

To save his life, Puru Jaipal entered into an alliance with Bhoj Chand, who was arrogant because of the strength of his forts and their difficulty of access, and there he considered himself secure against pursuit in his inaccessible retreat. Chand Rai, on the contrary, took up arms, trusting in the strength of his fort; but had he remained in it, he would undoubtedly have had it destroyed, and had he trusted to his army, it would have been of no avail. Tinder these circumstances, Bhimpal wrote him a letter to this effect: “Sultan Mahmud is not like the rulers of Hind and is not the leader of black men. It is obviously advisable to seek safety from such a person, for armies flee away before the very name of him and his father. I regard his bridle as much stronger than yours, for he never contents himself with one blow of the sword nor does his army satisfy itself with one hill out of a whole range. If, therefore, you design to contend with him, you will suffer; but do as you like – you know best. If you wish for your own safety, you will remain in concealment.”

Chand Rai considered that Bhimpal had given him sound advice and that danger was to be incurred by acting contrary to his suggestions. He therefore departed secretly with his property, elephants, and treasure to the hill country, which was exceedingly lofty, hiding himself in jungles which the sun could not penetrate

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and concealing even the direction of his flight, so that no man could know whither he was gone or whether he had sped by night or day. The object of Bhimpal in recommending the flight of Chand Rai was that the king should not fall into the net of the Sultan and thus be made a Mussulman, as had happened to Bhimpal’s uncle and relations, when they demanded quarter in their distress.

Sultan Mahmud invested and captured the fort, notwithstanding its strength and height. Here he got plenty of supplies and booty, but he did not obtain the real object of his desire, which was to seize Chand Rai, and which he now determined to effect by proceeding in pursuit of him. Accordingly, after marching fifteen parasangs, or leagues, through the jungle, which was so thorny that the faces of his men were scarred and bleeding, and through stony tracts which battered and injured the horses’ shoes, he at last came up to his enemy shortly before midnight on the twenty-fifth of Sha’ban, 409 A.H. (January 6, 1019 A.D.).

The Sultan summoned the most religiously disposed of his followers and ordered them to attack the enemy at once. Many infidels were consequently slain or taken prisoners in this sudden attack, but the Mussulmans paid no regard to the booty till they had sated themselves with the slaughter of the infidels and worshippers of the sun and fire. The soldiers of the Sultan searched the bodies of the slain for three whole days to obtain booty.

The plunder of gold and silver, and of rubies and

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pearls, amounted to nearly three thousand thousand dirhams, and the number of prisoners may be imagined from the fact that each brought from two to ten dirhams. These were afterwards taken to Ghazni, and merchants came from distant cities to purchase them, so that the countries of Mawara-an-nahr, Irak, and Khorasan were filled with them, and the fair and the dark, the rich and the poor, were commingled in one common slavery.

After an expedition against the Afghans, Sultan Mahmud again turned toward Hind with his bold warriors, whose greatest pleasure was to be in the saddle, which they regarded as their throne; while they deemed hot winds refreshing breezes and the drinking of dirty water seemed pure wine, so prepared were they to undergo every kind of privation and annoyance. When Mahmud arrived in that country, he granted quarter to all those who submitted, but slew those who opposed him. He obtained a large amount of booty before he reached a river known by the name of Rahib. It was very deep, and its bottom was muddy like tar used for anointing scabby animals. The feet of the horses and camels sank deeply into it, so that the men took off their coats of mail and stripped themselves naked before crossing it.

Puru Jaipal was encamped on the other side of the river, as a measure of security in consequence of this sudden attack, with his warriors dusky as night and with his elephants all caparisoned. He showed a determination to resist the passage of the Sultan, but at night

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Crossing the River Sutlaj on skins.

he was making preparations to escape down the river. When the Sultan learnt this, he ordered inflated skins to be prepared, and directed some of his men to swim over on them.

Jaipal, seeing eight men swimming over to that distant bank, ordered a detachment of his army, accompanied by five elephants, to oppose their

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landing, but the eight men plied their arrows so vigorously that the detachment was not able to effect its purpose. When the Sultan witnessed the full success of these men, he ordered all his soldiers who could swim to pass over at once, and promised them a life of repose after that day of trouble. His own personal guards first crossed this difficult stream, and they were followed by the whole army. Some swam over on skins, and others were nearly drowned, but eventually all landed safely.

When they all had reached the opposite bank, the Sultan ordered his men to mount their horses and charge in such a manner as to put the enemy to flight. Some of the infidels asked for mercy after being wounded, some were taken prisoners, some were killed, and the rest took to flight, while 270 gigantic elephants fell into the hands of the Mussulmans.

This collection transcribed by Chris Gage
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