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Chapter 3 – A Description of India in General by the Chinese Buddhist Pilgrim Hiuan Tsang

An old Buddhist sculpture from the Bharahat Stupa

About 650 A.D.

A large amount of information regarding the history and conditions of early India has been contributed by the Chinese travellers who visited Hindustan during the first millennium of the Christian era. Most of these travellers were Buddhist pilgrims bent on their pious mission of visiting the scenes which had been made holy by the presence of the Blessed One. Among the most valuable records written by one of these pilgrims from the Celestial Kingdom, as has already been pointed out in the second volume, was Hiuan Tsang, the contemporary of the Indian king Harsha, in the seventh century A.D. This devoted Buddhist left China in 629 A.D.. and spent more than ten years in wandering throughout India. On his return to his native country he recorded his observations in a work entitled “Si-yu-ki,” and the well-known chapter here reproduced from it gives a good account of Indian life as he saw it:–

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‘We find that the designations for India (rien,- chu) differ much according to the various authorities. The old names were Shon-tu or Hien-tou, but we must now conform to the right pronunciation and call it In-tu. The people of In-tu call their country by various names according to their different districts. Each country has different customs. Adopting a general name that is the most acceptable to the people, we shall call the country In-tu, which signifies moon.), The moon has many designations, In-tu being one of them. It is said that all living creatures unceasingly transmigrate, revolving through mortal existences in the long darkness of ignorance without having a guiding star. It is like the night after the setting of the bright sun, when, although people get light by candles and have the shining light of the stars, these are not comparable with the brightness of the serene moon. For this reason the spiritual condition of India is allegorically compared with the shining moon26. The sages and the wise teachers of this country followed the norm (of the Buddha) in succession, guided the people, and exercised rule, as the moon sheds its bright influences – on this account this country is called In-tu.

The people of India are divided into castes, the Brahmans are noted particularly on account of their purity and nobility. Tradition has so hallowed the name of this class that there is no question as to difference

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A scene in the Tista valley

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of place, but the people generally speak of India as the country of Brahmans (Po-lo-men).

The country embraced under the term India is generally spoken of as the Five Indies. In circuit this country is about ninety thousand li27 (about 30,000 miles); on three sides it is bordered by the great seas; on the north it is backed by the Snowy Mountains. The northern part is broad, the southern part is narrow. Its shape is like the half-moon. The entire land is divided into more than seventy countries. The seasons are particularly hot; the land is well watered and moist. On the north there is a series of mountains and hills, the ground being dry and salt. On the east there are valleys and plains, which are fruitful and productive, as they are well watered and cultivated. In the southern part there is an abundance of herbs and trees; in the western part the land is barren and stony. Such is the general account; we shall now briefly give details.

In point of measurement, there is (first of all) the league (Chinese yu-shen-na, Sanskrit yojana); from the time of the holy kings of old this has been regarded as a day’s march for an army. The old accounts say one yu-shen-na, or yojana, is equal to forty li (about fourteen miles); according to the common reckoning in India it is thirty li (about ten miles), but in the sacred books (of the Buddha), the yojana is only sixteen li (about five miles). In the subdivision of distances,

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a yojana is equal to eight “shouts” (Chinese ku-lu-she, Sanskrit krosa); a ku-lu-she, or krosa, is the limit of distance that the lowing of a cow can be heard; in the division of the krosa, one krosa makes five hundred bow-lengths (Sanskrit dhanu); one bow-length is divided into four cubits (Sanskrit hasta); a cubit is divided into twenty-four fingers (Sanskrit anguli); a finger is divided into seven barley-corns (Sanskrit yava); and so on to a louse, a nit (liksha), a dust grain, a cow’s hair, a sheep’s hair, a hare’s down, copper water, and so on for seven divisions, till we come to a fine dust; a grain of fine dust is divided sevenfold till we come to an excessively fine dust (anu); this cannot be divided farther without arriving at nothingness, and so it is called the atom (literally, “infinitely small,” Sanskrit paramanu).

Although the revolution of the Yin and Yang (Negative and Positive Principles) and the successive mansions of the sun and moon are called by names different from ours, yet the seasons are the same; the names of the months are derived from the position of the lunar asterisms.

The shortest space of time is called an instant (Chinese ts’a-na, Sanskrit kshana); 120 kshanas make a ta-ts’a-na (Sanskrit tatkshana); sixty of these make a la-fo (Sanskrit lava); thirty of these make a mau-hi-li-to (muhurta); five of these make a “watch” (Sanskrit kala, literally, “time”); six of these make a day and night (ahoratra), but popular custom divides the days and nights into “watches” (kalas).

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The period from the new moon till full moon is called the white division (Sanskrit sukla-paksha) of the month; the period from the full moon till the disappearance of the light is called the dark portion (krishna-paksha). The dark portion comprises fourteen or fifteen days, because the month is sometimes short and sometimes long. The preceding dark portion and the following light portion together form a month; six months form a “march” (Chinese hing, Sanskrit ayana). When the sun moves within the equator, it is said to be on its northward march; when it moves without the equator, it is on its southern march. These two periods form a year (Sanskrit vatsara).

The year, again, is divided into six seasons. From the sixteenth day of the first month till the fifteenth day of the third month is the season of gradual heat (literally “it becomes gradually hot”); from the sixteenth day of the third month till the fifteenth of the fifth month is called the season of full heat (literally, “it is very hot”); from the sixteenth day of the fifth month till the fifteenth day of the seventh month is called the rainy season; from the sixteenth of the seventh month till the fifteenth of the ninth month is called the season of growth (of vegetation); from the sixteenth day of the ninth month to the fifteenth day of the eleventh month is called the season of gradual cold (literally, “the season gradually becomes cold”); from the sixteenth day of the eleventh month to the fifteenth day of the first month is called the season of great cold.

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An Indian picture showing the signs of the Zodiac

According to the sacred doctrine of the Tathagata (Buddha), the year has three seasons. From the sixteenth day of the first month till the fifteenth day of the fifth month is called the hot season; from the sixteenth day of the fifth month till the fifteenth of the ninth month is called the rainy season; from the sixteenth day of the ninth month to the fifteenth day of the first month is called the cold season. Sometimes the year is divided into four seasons – spring, summer, autumn, and winter. The three spring months are called Chi-ta-lo (Sanskrit Chaitra) month, Fei-she-kie (Sanskrit Vaisakha) month, She-se-ch’a (Sanskrit

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Jyeshtha) month; these correspond with the time from the sixteenth day of the last month to the fifteenth day of the fourth month. The three summer months are called An-sha-cha (Sanskrit Ashadha) month, Chi-lo-fa-na (Sanskrit Sravana) month, Po-ta-lo-pa-to (Sanskrit Bhadrapada) month; these correspond to the time from the sixteenth day of the fourth month to the fifteenth day of the seventh month. The three autumn months are called An-shi-fo-ku-che (Sanskrit Asvayuja) month, Kia-li-ta-ka (Sanskrit Kartika) month, Wi-kia-chi-lo (Sanskrit Margasirsha) month; these correspond to the time from the sixteenth day of the seventh month to the fifteenth day of the tenth month. The three months of winter are called P’o-sha (Sanskrit Pushya) month, Ma-ku (Sanskrit Magha) month, and P’o-li-kiu-na (Sanskrit Phalguna) month; these correspond with the time from the sixteenth day of the tenth month to the fifteenth day of the first month in China. Therefore the Buddhist priests in India, following the holy teaching of the Buddha, observe two periods of Retreat during the rainy season, these being either the former three months or the latter three months. The former three months correspond to the period from the sixteenth day of the fifth month to the fifteenth day of the eighth month, and the latter correspond to the period from the sixteenth day of the sixth month to the fifteenth day of the ninth month.

Ancient translators of the Sutras (Chinese King) and the Vinaya (Chinese Liu) employed the terms tso-hia (“keeping summer”) and tso-la-hia (“keeping

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A Gandhara Sculpture, apparently portraying the bathing of the infant Buddha

From the original in the editor’s collection

the end of winter”) to signify the retreat during the rainy season; but this was because the people of foreign countries did not understand the exact sounds of the language of the Middle Country (of India), because the local dialects do not agree, and the translations therefore contain errors. And for the same reason there are discrepancies regarding the time of Buddha’s conception, birth, renunciation, enlightenment, and Nirvana, which we shall notice in the subsequent records.

The towns and villages of India have gates; the surrounding walls are broad and high; the streets and lanes are narrow and crooked. The thoroughfares are dirty and the stalls are arranged on both sides of the road with appropriate signs. Butchers, fishermen, actors, executioners, scavengers, and so on, have their dwellings outside of the city. In coming and going

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these persons are bound to keep on the left side of the road till they arrive at their homes. As to the construction of houses and the enclosing walls, the land being low and moist, the walls of the towns are mostly built of bricks or tiles, and the enclosures of the houses are matted bamboo or wood. The houses have balconies and belvederes made of wood, as well as flat roofs with a coating of lime, and are covered with burnt or unburnt tiles. The buildings are very high, and in style of construction they are like those in China. Branches or common grasses or tiles or boards are used for covering them. The walls are covered with lime, the floor is smeared with cow’s dung as means of purity, and it is strewn with flowers of the season. In such matters they differ from us.

Many Samgharamas (Buddhist monasteries) are constructed with extraordinary skill. A three-storied tower is erected at each of the four angles. The beams and the projecting heads are carved with strange figures. The doors, the windows, and the walls are painted in many colours; the houses of the ordinary people are luxurious on the inside but plain on the outside. The interior and central rooms vary in height and width. As to the form and construction of the tiers of terraces and the series of salons, there is no fixed rule. The doors open toward the east; the royal throne also faces the east.

When the Hindus sit or rest they all use corded benches; the royal family, great personages, the officials, and the gentry use benches variously ornamented,

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but in size they are the same. The throne of the reigning sovereign is exceedingly high and broad, and it is set with pearls and precious gems; it is called the lion-throne (Sanskrit simhasana). It is covered with extremely fine drapery; the footstool is adorned with gems. The ordinary officials carve their seats in various ways and decorate them beautifully according to their taste.

The outer and the inner clothing of the Hindus is not cut or fashioned; they affect pure white garments, but dislike those of mixed colour. The men wind a cloth around the waist, gather it up under the armpits, and let it fall down across the shoulder to the right. The women wear robes reaching to the ground and completely covering the shoulders. They wear a little knot of hair on the crown of the head and let the rest of their hair hang down. Some of the men cut off their moustaches and have other odd customs. The people crown their heads with garlands and wear necklaces on their borders. Their garments are made of the kiau-she-ye (Sanskrit kausheya) of muslin and of cotton. The kiau-she-ye is a product of the wild silkworm.

The people have also garments of ts’o-mo (Sanskrit kshauma), which is a sort of hemp; garments made of kien-po-lo (Sanskrit kambala), which is woven from fine wool; and garments made from ho-la-li (Sanskrit karala). This stuff is made from the wool of a wild animal; it is fine, soft, and pliable for weaving, and is therefore excellent and esteemed for clothing.

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A Fakir

In North India, where the climate is cold, the people wear short and close-fitting garments, very similar to those of the Hu people (Tartars). Some wear peacocks’ feathers; some wear as ornaments necklaces made of skull bones (the Kapala-dharinas); some have no clothing, but go naked (the Nirgranthas); some use grasses or bark to cover their bodies; some pull out their hair and cut off their moustaches; others have bushy side-whiskers and their hair braided on the top of their heads. The costume of the people is not uniform in colour, whether red or white.

The costume of the Shamans (the Buddhist monks) is the three robes and the sang-kio-ki and ni-fo-si-na. The cut of the three robes is not the same, but depends on the school. Some have wide or narrow borders, others have small or large folds. The sang-kio-ki covers the left shoulder and conceals the two armpits. It is worn open on the left and closed on the right, and reaches down below the waist. The ni-fo-si-na has neither belt nor bands. When putting it on, it is plaited in folds and worn round the loins with a cord to fasten

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it. The schools differ as to the colour of this garment, whether yellow or red.

The Kshatriyas and the Brahmans are plain and simple in their dress, and they live in a homely and frugal way. The king of the country and the chief ministers affect clothing of a good and fashionable style. They adorn their heads with garlands and jewelled caps; they ornament themselves with bracelets and necklaces.

Rich merchants and great traders have merely bracelets. Most of the people go barefooted; very few wear sandals. They stain their teeth red or black; they wear their hair cut even and pierce their ears; they have handsome noses and large eyes. Such is their appearance.

The Hindus are cleanly of their own accord and not by force. They generally wash themselves before each meal, and they never use that which has been left over (from a former meal), nor do they use their dishes a second time. Pottery or wooden vessels, when used, must be thrown away; vessels of gold, silver, copper, or iron must be rubbed and polished after each meal. After eating they cleanse their teeth with a willow stick, and wash their hands and mouth.

Until these ablutions are finished, they do not touch one another. Every time they perform the functions of nature, they wash and rub their bodies with perfumes made from sandalwood or turmeric. When the king goes to his bath, they strike the drums and sing hymns to the sound of musical instruments. Before

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An aged musician with a gourd-lyre

offering their religious worship and paying homage, they wash and bathe themselves.

The letters of their alphabet were made by the god Brahma, and their forms have been handed down from the beginning until now. They are forty-seven in number and are combined so as to form words according to the object, and different forms are used according to the circumstances of the case. These letters, moreover, after the manner of the streams of a river or the branches of a tree, have spread far and wide from their source and have become somewhat modified according to the place and the people. The spoken language has generally not varied from the original source, but the speech of Middle India is particularly accurate and precise. The manner of speaking there is harmonious and like the language of the gods. The pronunciation of the words is clear and distinct, and fit to be a model for all men. The people of the frontiers and of foreign countries, through repeating mistakes of their teachers until these have become standard and by yielding to vulgar habits, have lost the pure style of speaking.

With respect to the records and documents, each

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province has its own official for preserving them in writing. The annals and state papers are collectively called ni-lo-pi-ch’a (Sanskrit nilapita, “blue deposit”). In these records good and evil events are mentioned, together with calamities and fortunate occurrences.

To educate and encourage the young, they first teach them to study the book of “Twelve Chapters” (Sanskrit siddhavastu). After arriving at the age of seven years, the young are instructed in the great treatises of the “Five Sciences” (Sanskrit vidya). The first is called Grammar, the elucidation of sounds (Sanskrit sabdavidya). This treatise explains the meaning of words and their derivation.

The second science is called kiau-ming (Sanskrit silpasthanavidya); it treats of the arts and of mechanics, and it explains the principles of the Yin and Yang (Negative and Positive Principles) and of the calendar. The third is called the “Medicinal Treatise” (Sanskrit chikitsavidya); it illustrates the use of charms, medicinal stones, needles, and moxa. The fourth science is called “Logic” (Sanskrit hetuvidya, “science of reasoning”), which determines the right and the wrong and discriminates between the true and the false. The fifth science is called the science of “Inward Knowledge” (Sanskrit adhyatmavidha); it relates to the Five Vehicles, and the doctrine of cause and effect (karma).

The Brahmans study the four Veda treatises. The first is called Shau (“longevity,” i.e. the Ayur-Veda); it relates to the preservation of life and the regulation

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of the natural condition. The second is called Sse (“worship,” i.e. the Yajur-Veda); it relates to sacrifice and prayer. The third is called Ping (“peace, regulation,” i.e. the Sama-Veda); it relates to decorum, casting of lots, military tactics, and warfare. The fourth is called Shu (“arts,” i.e. the Atharva-Veda); it relates to various branches of science, incantations, medicine.

The teachers (of these works) must themselves have closely studied the deep and secret principles which they contain, and must have penetrated to their remotest meaning. They then explain their general sense, and instruct their pupils in matters of detail. They urge them on and skilfully guide them. They add lustre to their poor knowledge and stimulate the dull. When pupils who are keen and intelligent are inclined to shirk their tasks and duties, the teacher repeats the lesson until they acquire it. When the students have finished their education and are thirty years of age, their character is formed and their knowledge ripe. When they have secured an occupation, they first of all repay their master for his kindness. There are some, deeply versed in antiquity, who devote themselves to elegant studies and live apart from the world, leading lives of self-abnegation. These come and go outside of the world and wander about apart from mundane things. Although as insensible to renown as to the contempt of the world, their fame is far spread, and rulers esteem them highly, but are unable to attract them to the court. The state honours them on account of their

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A gateway of the Buddhist Stupa at Sanchi

mental gifts, and the people exalt their fame and render them universal homage. This is the reason of their devoting themselves to their studies with ardour and resolution, without any sense of fatigue. They seek to acquire a knowledge of the sciences and go to visit the man who has attained it, not taking the distance of one thousand li into account. Although their family may be possessed of large wealth, they nevertheless prefer to live like mendicants and to get their food by begging as they wander to and fro. They have the honour of knowing the truth and there is no disgrace in being destitute of money. There are others who lead

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idle lives, abounding in food and luxurious in their dress, men without any good quality or attainment, and on such persons come shame and disgrace, and their ill repute is far spread.

The doctrines of the Tathagata (Buddha) may be comprehended by men of different qualities; but, as the time is now remote since the Holy One lived, his doctrine is presented in a changed form, and is therefore understood orthodoxly or heterodoxly, according to the intelligence of those who inquire into it. The different schools are constantly at variance, and their contending utterances rise like the angry waves of the sea. The different schools have their separate masters, but they aim to reach one and the same end, though by different ways.

There are eighteen schools, each claiming pre-eminence. The tenets of the Great and the Little Vehicle differ widely. There are some of the followers who give themselves up to meditation, and devote themselves, whether walking, standing still, or sitting down, to the acquirement of wisdom and insight. Others, on the contrary, differ from these in raising noisy contentions about their faith. According to their fraternity, they are governed by distinctive rules and regulations, which we need not name.

The Vinaya (Chinese Liu), the Abhidharmas, or Discourses (Chinese Lun), and the Sutras (Chinese King), are equally Buddhist books. He who can explain one class of these books is exempted from the control of the prior of the monastery. If he can explain

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A Chinese Buddhist Monastery

two classes, he receives in addition the equipments of a superior; he who can explain three classes has servants allotted to him to wait upon him and obey him; he who can explain four classes has “pure men” (cf. Sanskrit upasakas) allotted to him as attendants; he who can explain five classes of books is allowed an

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elephant and carriage; he who can explain six classes of books is allowed a surrounding escort. When a man’s renown has reached high distinction, he then at different times convokes an assembly for discussion of the treatises. He judges of the superior or inferior talent of those who take part in it; he distinguishes their good or bad points; he praises the clever and reproves the faulty. If one of the assembly distinguishes himself by refined language, subtle investigation, eloquent diction, and acute reasoning, he then is mounted on a richly caparisoned elephant and conducted by a numerous suite to the gates of the monastery.

If, on the contrary, one of the members breaks down in his argument, or uses poor and inelegant phrases, or if he violates a rule in logic and adapts his words accordingly, they daub his face with red and white, and cover his body with dirt and dust, and then carry him off to some deserted spot or leave him in a ditch. Thus they distinguish between the meritorious and the worthless, between the wise and the foolish.

The pursuit of pleasure belongs to a worldly life, to follow knowledge appertains to a religious life; to return to a worldly life from a life of religion is considered blameworthy. If one breaks the rules of discipline, such a transgressor is publicly reproved; for a slight fault a reprimand Is given him, for the next heavier one he is excluded from conversation with the brethren; for a grave offence expulsion is enforced. Those who are thus expelled for life go out to seek

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some dwelling-place, or, finding no place of refuge, become wanderers; or sometimes they go back to their old occupation (i. e. resume lay life).

With respect to the divisions of caste, there are four classes. The first is called the Brahman (Chinese Po-lo-men), men of pure lives. They adhere to the teachings of the religion, live clean lives, and observe the most correct principles. The second is called Kshatriya (Chinese T’sa-ti-li), the royal caste. For ages they have been the ruling class: they apply themselves to benevolence and mercy. The third is called Vaisyas (Chinese Fei-she-li), the merchant class; they engage in commercial transactions and seek for profit at home and abroad. The fourth is called Sudra (Chinese Shut’o-lo), the agricultural class; they engage in cultivating the soil and occupy themselves with sowing and reaping. These four castes form different classes of various degrees of ceremonial purity. The members of a caste marry within their own class; the high and the low are kept quite separate. They do not allow promiscuous marriages between relations either on the father’s side or on the mother’s side. A woman once married can never take another husband. Besides these there are mixed castes, a variety of classes formed by different grades of people intermarrying. It would be difficult to speak of these in detail.

The succession of kings’ is confined to the Kshatriya (Chinese T’sa-ti-li) caste; usurpation and bloodshed have occasionally arisen (in the matter of succession), and even other castes have assumed the dignity.

The Buddhist Tope at Sarnath near Benares

The great tope, or Buddhist memorial tower, at Sarnath, near Benares is one of the most sacred shrines of the ancient faith of Gautama the Blessed. It commemorates the place where Buddha. after receiving his enlightenment, preached his first sermon and taught the doctrine, of quenching the fire of lust in the human heart, a cardinal tenet of his faith.

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The chief soldiers of the country are selected from the bravest of the people, and as the sons follow the profession of their fathers, they soon acquire a knowledge of the art of war. These dwell in garrison around the palace (during times of peace), but when on an expedition they march- in front as an advance guard. There are four divisions of the army, the infantry, the cavalry, the chariots, and the elephants. The elephants are covered with strong armour, and their tusks are provided with sharp spurs. The commander-in-chief rides on an elephant, with two soldiers on the right and left to manage the animal. The ordinary officer rides in a chariot drawn by four horses; he is surrounded by a file of guards, who keep close to his chariot wheels.

The cavalry spread themselves in front to resist an attack, and in case of defeat they carry orders hither and thither. The infantry by their quick movements contribute to the defence. These men are chosen for their courage and strength. They carry a great shield and a long spear; sometimes they hold a sword or sabre, and advance to the front with impetuosity. All their weapons of war are sharp and pointed. Some of them are these – spears, shields, bows, arrows, swords, sabres, battle-axes, lances, halberds, long javelins, and various kinds of slings. All these they have used for ages.

With respect to the ordinary people, although they are naturally quick-tempered, yet they will not take anything wrongly and they yield more than justice

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A Gandhara sculpture of Buddha

requires. In money matters they are without craft, and in administering justice they are considerate. They dread the retribution of another state of existence and make light of the things of the present world. They are not deceitful or treacherous in their conduct, and are faithful to their oaths and promises. In their rules of government there is remarkable rectitude, while in their behaviour there is much gentleness and sweetness.

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The law of the state is sometimes violated by base persons, and plots are made against the ruler. When the matter has been fully sifted, the offenders are imprisoned for life. There is no infliction of corporal punishment; they are simply left to live or die, and are not counted among men. When the rules of propriety or justice are violated, or when a man fails in loyalty or filial piety, they cut off his nose or his ears, or his hands and feet, or expel him from the country, or drive him out into the desert wilds. For other faults, except these, a small payment of money will commute the punishment. In the investigation of criminal cases there is no use of rod or staff to obtain proofs (of guilt). In questioning an accused person, if he replies with frankness, the punishment is proportioned accordingly; but if the accused obstinately denies his fault, or in spite of it attempts to excuse himself, then in searching out the truth to the bottom, when it is necessary to pass sentence, there are four kinds of ordeal used – ordeal by water, by fire, by weighing, and by poison.

When the ordeal is by water, the accused is placed in a sack connected with a stone vessel and thrown into deep water. They then judge of his innocence or guilt in this way – if the man sinks and the stone floats, he is guilty; but if the man floats and the stone sinks, he is pronounced innocent.

Secondly, by fire. They heat some iron and make the accused kneel on it and then tread on it, and apply it to the palms of his hands; moreover, he is made to

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pass his tongue over it; if no scars result, he is innocent; if there are scars, his guilt is proved. In the case of timid and weak persons who cannot endure such a horrible ordeal, they take a flower-bud and cast it toward the fire; if it opens, he is innocent; if the flower is burned, he is guilty.

Ordeal by weight is this: A man and a stone are placed in a balance evenly, then they judge according to lightness or weight. If the accused is innocent, then the man weighs down the stone, which rises in the balance; if he is guilty, the man rises and the stone falls.

Ordeal by poison is this: They take a ram, cut off its right hind leg, and put poison upon the portion of flesh that is assigned to the accused to eat; if the man is guilty, the poison takes effect and he dies; if the man is innocent, the poison has no effect and he survives.

There are nine methods of showing outward respect: first, by greeting with a kind inquiry; second, by bowing the head reverently; third, by raising the hands with an inclination of the body; fourth, by bowing with the hands folded on the breast; fifth, by bending the knee; sixth, by an obeisance; seventh, by going clown upon the ground on one’s hands and knees; eighth, by going down upon the ground with the knees, elbows, and forehead; ninth, by prostrating oneself upon the earth. Of these nine methods the most respectful is to make one prostration on the ground and then to kneel and laud the virtues of the one addressed. When at a distance, it is usual to bow low; when near,

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Paraphernalia for a Chinese Buddhist ritual observance

it is customary to kiss the feet and rub the ankles of a high personage.

Whenever orders are received at the hands of a superior the person lifts the skirts of his robes and makes a prostration. The superior or honourable person who is thus reverenced must speak gently (to the inferior), either touching his head or patting his back, and addressing him with good words of direction or advice to show his affection. When a Sramana (Buddhist monk) or one who has entered on the religious.

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life, has been thus respectfully addressed, he replies simply by expressing a benediction. Not only do they prostrate themselves to show reverence, but many circumambulate any object that is to be venerated, making sometimes one circuit, sometimes three circumambulations, or as many as they wish if they have a special petition in mind.

Every one who falls sick fasts for seven days. During this interval many recover, but if the sickness lasts they take medicine. The character of these medicines is different, and their names also vary. The doctors differ in their modes of examination and treatment. If a person dies, those who attend the funeral raise lamentable cries and weep together. They rend their garments and tear their hair; they strike their heads and beat their breasts. There are no regulations as to dress for mourning, nor any fixed period for observing it. There are three methods of paying the last tribute to the dead: first, by cremation – wood being made into a pyre, the body is burnt; second, by water – the body is thrown into a stream to float and fall into dissolution; third, by desertion, in which case the body is cast into some forest-wild to be devoured by beasts.

When the king dies, his successor is first appointed, that he may preside at the funeral rites and fix the different points of precedence. Whilst living they give their rulers titles of merit according to their character; when dead there are no posthumous titles.

In a house where there has been a death there is no eating allowed; but after the funeral they resume

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An indian representation of Buddha

their usual habits. There are no anniversaries (of the death) observed. Those who have attended a funeral are regarded as unclean; they all bathe outside the town and then enter their houses.

The old and infirm ‘who are approaching death, or those who are suffering from some incurable disease, who fear to linger to the end of their days, and through disgust at life wish to escape from its troubles, or those who, contemning mortal existence, desire release from the affairs of the world and its concerns – these persons, after receiving a farewell meal at the hands of their relatives and friends, - they place, amid the sounds of music, on a boat which they propel into the midst of the Ganges, and there these persons drown themselves. They think in this way to secure a birth in Heaven. Hardly one out of ten will not carry out his foolish idea.

The Buddhist brethren are not allowed to lament or weep for the dead; when the father or mother of a monk dies, they recite prayers, recounting their obligations to them and recalling the past, and they carefully attend to them being now dead. They expect by this to increase the happiness of the departed.

As the administration of the government is founded on benign principles, the executive is simple. The families

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are not entered on registers, and the people are not subject to forced labour contribution. The private demesnes of the crown are divided into four principal parts; the first is for carrying out the affairs of state and providing sacrificial offerings; the second is for the endowment of the ministers and chief officers of state; the third is for rewarding men of distinguished intelligence, learning, or ability; and the fourth is for charity to religious bodies, whereby the field of merit is cultivated (planted). In this way the taxes on the people are light, and the personal service required of them is moderate. Each one keeps his hereditary occupation as he pleases and attends to his patrimony. Those who cultivate the royal estates pay a sixth part of the produce as rent. The merchants who engage in commerce come and go in carrying out their transactions. The river-passages and the road-barriers are open on payment of a small toll. When the public works require it, labour is exacted but paid for. The payment is in strict proportion to the work done.

The military guard the frontiers, or go out to punish the refractory. They also mount guard at night round the palace. The soldiers are levied according to the requirements of the service; they are promised certain payments and are publicly enrolled. The governors, ministers, magistrates, and officials have each a portion of land consigned to them for their personal support.

The climate and the quality of the soil being diverse,

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the produce of the land varies in its character. The flowers and herbs, the fruits and trees are of different kinds, and have distinct names. There are, for instance, of the fruits the amra (ngan-mo-lo, or mango), the amla (ngan-mi-lo, or tamarind), the madhuka (mo-tu-kia, or Bassia latifolia), the badara (po-ta-lo, or jujube), the kapittha (kie-pi-ta, or wood-apple), the amala (o-mo-lo, or myrobalan), the tinduka (chin-tu-kia, or Diospyros embryopteris), the udumbara (wu-tan-po-lo, or Ficus glomerata), the mocha (mau-che, or plantain), the narikela (na-li-ki-lo, or cocoa-nut), and the panasa (panna-so, or jack-fruit). It would be difficult to enumerate all the kinds of fruit; we have briefly named those most esteemed by the people. As for the date (tsau), the chestnut (lih), the loquat (p’i), and the persimmon (thi), they are not known in India. The pear (li), the wild plum (nai), the peach (tau), the apricot (hang or mui), the grape (po-tau), and the like have all been brought from the country of Kashmir, and are found growing here and there. Pomegranates and sweet oranges are grown everywhere.

In cultivating the land, those whose duty it is sow and reap, plough and harrow, and plant according to the season; and after their labour they rest awhile. Among the products of the ground, rice and wheat are most plentiful. With respect to edible herbs and vegetables, we may name ginger and mustard, melons and pumpkins, the heun-to plant (Skt. kunda, properly the olibanum-tree), and others. Onions and garlic are little grown, and few persons eat them; if any one uses them

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for food, they are expelled beyond the walls of the town. The most usual food is milk, butter, cream, soft sugar, sugar-candy, the oil of the mustard-seed, and likewise all sorts of cakes made of corn. Fish, mutton, the flesh of the gazelle, and venison they eat generally fresh, sometimes salted; they are forbidden to eat the flesh of the ox, the ass, the elephant, the horse, the pig, the dog, the fox, the wolf, the lion, the monkey, and all the hairy kind. Those who eat them are despised and scorned, and are universally reprobated; they live outside the walls and are seldom seen among men.

With respect to the different kinds of wine and beverages, there are distinctions in usage. Wines from the grape and the sugar-cane are used by the Kshatriyas as drink; the Vaisyas take strong fermented drinks; the Sramanas and Brahmans drink a sort of syrup made from the grape or the sugar-cane, but not of the nature of fermented wine.

The mixed classes and low born (Sudras) differ in no way (as to food or drink) from the rest, except in respect of the vessels they use, which are very different both as to value and material. There is no lack of suitable things for household use. Although they have saucepans and stew-pans, yet they do not know the steam-boiler used for cooking rice. Their household utensils are mostly earthenware, few being of brass; they eat from one vessel, mixing all sorts of condiments together, which they take up with their fingers. Generally speaking, spoons and chop-sticks are not used. 1hen sick, however, they use copper spoons.

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Gold and silver, tou-shi (a sort of native brass), white jade, and crystals are the natural products of the country, and are very abundant. Rare precious substances of different sorts and various names are collected from the regions bordering upon the sea, and are bartered for merchandise. But in their commercial transactions, gold and silver coins, cowries, and small pearls are the medium of exchange.’

An Indian pot

Footnotes

26. The candles, stars, moon, and sun are here compared allegorically with the common people, the lay scholars, Buddhist teachers, and the Buddha, according to the degrees of brightness or enlightenment in spiritual matters.

27. For a detailed discussion of the various values of the li consult Yule, Hobson-Jobson, 2d ed., p. 513, article “Lee.”

This collection transcribed by Chris Gage
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