Page 237

Chapter 8 – Hindu Manners and Customs as Described by the Dutch Missionary Abraham Roger

1640 A.D.

One of the most interesting accounts of the manners and customs of the people of Southern India is given by the Dutch missionary Abraham Roger, who resided at Pulicat, north of Madras, from 1631 to 1641. His chief informant was an outcast but intelligent Brahman named Padmanabha, who conversed with him in Portuguese. Roger returned to Holland, after five years at Batavia, in 1647, and died at Gonda in 1649. Two years later his widow published at Leyden his memoirs of India, entitled De Open-Deure tot het verborgen Heydendom, or “The Open Door to Hidden Heathendom,” which appeared in a German version at Nuremberg in 1663 and in a French rendering at Amsterdam in 1670. Dr. Louis H. Gray has here translated portions of the work into English for the first time; and his version, which is comprised in this chapter, preserves the atmosphere of the original in a particularly happy manner.

‘Our purpose in this treatise is not only to set forth the life and the customs of the Bramines, but

Page 238

Interior of an Ajanta Cave

also to reveal their belief and religion. But before we begin to speak of these matters and of that which pertaineth thereunto, we must first make a brief preface on the races and castes of which the heathen nation on the coast of Coromandel doth consist; for that will give light and clearness, the better to understand what shall be said hereafter.

The Bramin Padmanaba (Padmanabha), from whose mouth I have all the mysteries of heathendom which are revealed in this book, beareth witness that there were four general castes or races in this nation. For though it seemeth that five castes should be reckoned thereto, yet they say that there are but four, since the fifth is not really and truly counted among the castes. These four are the caste of the Bramines (Brahmans), the caste of the Settreas (Kshatriyas), of the Weinjas (Vaisyas), and of the Soudras (Sudras). They follow each other in order, like as they are placed here, and also surpass each other in honour. So that the first and the most esteemed is the caste of Bramines; yea, they also say that these are pre-eminent, and most acceptable in the sight of God. The Bramin Padmanaba said that as among all beasts the kine, among all birds the bird Garouda (which is a red sparrow-hawk with a white ring about his neck), and among all trees the tree rawasittou, so also among all men and races the caste of Bramines is the first and the most honourable in the eyes of God. Also they have much reverence among that people, so that with them it is a thing beyond all gainsaying that the caste of Bramines hath the

Page 239

first place among the people; and all others, of however reverend race they be, gladly acknowledge that the caste of Bramines cloth surpass them in excellence. The Vedam, or the law-book of these heathen, hath brought much honour to this caste, in that it, as through divine ordinance, hath commanded that no Bramin may be put to death for any fault, however evil or shameful it may be; but whensoever a Bramin so goeth astray as to be worthy of death, his eyes are blinded instead thereof. For, as they say, to slay a Bramin is one of the five great sins that may not easily be forgiven; so that the Vedam, or heathen’s law-book, hath ordained that he who slayeth a Bramin must go on a pilgrimage for twelve years, and that he must beg for alms with the skull of the slain Bramin in his hand, and that he must eat and drink of what he hath begged, and that, after the lapse of the time aforesaid, he must give many alms and build a temple in honour of Eswara (Isvara, or Vishnu). Nevertheless, if a Bramin goeth to war to kill others, then is it not so great a sin to slay a Bramin; and in that case the slayer is not bound to perform all the aforesaid in atonement, but he can here make recompense (if so be that he have the means) by building a temple in honour of Eswara.

The second caste in order is the caste of the Settreas, which also is a fact beyond dispute and recognized as true by all the other lesser castes. These are the nobles of the land, and there are called Rajes, whose head is the king, wherefore he writeth at the beginning of his letters: “The Raja of Rajes, the god of Rajes.” In

Page 240

Brahman priests at Rameswara, Southern India

olden times the race of nobles had only two branches, whereof the first was called Souriwansjam (Sanskrit surya-vamsa, “of the solar race”), and had their name from the sun, since souri signifieth “sun” in Samscortam (Sanskrit), which is a language wherein all the mysteries of heathendom are writ, and which is esteemed among the Bramines like as the Latin tongue among the learned in Europe. These are so named because they are the true stock of nobles. The other branch is called Somowansjam (Sanskrit soma-vamsa, “of the lunar race”) and have their name from the moon, since in the language aforesaid sonio betokeneth “moon.” Besides these two branches, there are many

Page 241

others whose nobility is not so great, for that they have mingled with other races and thereby greatly abased their high estate. The two first named intermarry, but they may not wed with those who have fallen so far from their nobility.

The duty of the nobles is to protect the land and to provide for it, forcibly to withstand the foe, to see that the Bramines suffer no lack, likewise to make sure that all goeth well in the land, that right and justice make progress; and, in short, it is their duty to govern the realm well. Nevertheless, if they be poor, even as there be many poor nobles, it doth sometimes hap that they must live on their estates, and as, moreover, they have no other income and may not take any mercature in hand, and as their household doth oft-times multiply much because of childien, they oft need more than their income bringeth, so that many times they leave behind impoverished children who must then serve as soldiers unto those nobles who have wealth.

The third caste is the caste of the Weinsjas. In this caste some are the Comitijs (Komatis) and some are they who are called Sitti weapari. Each of these claim to be the true Weinsjas. These people gain their livelihood in merchantry and live therefrom; and the Bramin Padmanaba said that they must act therein rightly and without guile, so that they may not win much even from mercature. These folk bear themselves in their manner of life well-nigh like the Bramines, whereas the caste of the Settreas and that of the Soudraes eat fish and flesh, excepting the flesh of kine, which

Page 242

A group of women and children

is forbidden to all. castes alike by the Vedam; so that, like as the Mohammedans abstain from the flesh of swine, so also all the castes here refrain from the meat of kine, and have more fear and horror thereof than the Mohammedans feel for the flesh of the pig. Thus the Weinsjas likewise refrain from all that hath had life, even as the Bramines.

The fourth caste is the Soudraes (Sanskrit Sudra), who be the common people. This caste hath within it many and divers divisions, whereof each pretendeth to surpass the others; and therefore it doth ofttimes hap that great strife ariseth in the land, insomuch as one caste or another, be it in marriage or in burial of the dead, goeth beyond what is the custom. Therefrom a whole city ofttimes falleth in an uproar, even as I

Page 243

do mind me that in the year 1640, in the month of January, the whole city of Paliacatta (Pulicat) on the coast of Coromandel was in tumult, for that the Palijs, which is the caste of poulterers, spread a cloth upon the earth while burying one of their dead, to the end that the corpse might be carried thereover. This the caste of Cauwreaes (Kafirs, i. e. “infidels, outcasts”) would not suffer, declaring that this was proper for them but not for the Palijs, and that, though they had put up with it for a long time, they would bear it no longer; so that the corpse remained unburied for some days, until it was interred by the authority of the governor of our nation. Thereat the Palijs were so wroth that they went forth from the city with their wives and children, and called the Cauwreaes to open battle; and inasmuch as these Palijs have some among the castes of Soudraes who must hold with them in time of parlousness, therefore they called forth these folk from the city for the space of three months; and so, on January 23, all the carpenters, smiths, and workers in gold, and all who were of these trades, were called forth of the city, and they who remained therein would not work. But before the battle might be joined, time of great unrest ensued, nor was the matter ended without effusion of blood, for in the month of March fifteen Palijs and Cauwreaes were slain in fight, so that ye may see how nicely each caste of Soudraes standeth on its own.

It bath already been said that the caste of Soudraes eompriseth many divisions. These have each a special

Page 244

Native Indian ploughs

name, whereby they are distinguished one from another, and ofttimes different trades, whereby they support themselves; but one of the best castes was held the Wellala (Vellalars), some of whom bear rule and others live by agriculture. Next follow, say they, the Ambria, the most of whom live by sowing and some serve the great, although at Paliacatta they also gain their livelihood by building houses. The other castes I shall not here set forth according to their order, for that there is no unanimity among them as to which precedeth, but each mightily claimeth and pretendeth that his own caste is best. The Cauwreaes are a very great caste, called “the race of the three hundred.” In this caste are received all those that have lost their caste, and therefore they are, as it were, without caste; and therefore they liken this caste to the sea, which receiveth all the water of the rivers, yet doth not become full thereof. Some of this caste govern; many are painters who paint the linen cloth which is needful for the clothing of their nation, as well as of others oversea, especially in Aracan and most of all in Pegu, wheresoever these paintings are much affected and desired. Many are soldiers.

Page 245

The Sittijs (Sittars, “saints”) are merchants and also porters, whensoever they have no means of trade. The Palijs deal in poultry and swine, as well as in merchandise; and some, they say, are painters, and some are soldiers. In ancient times, it is said, they were famed for valour in war and were men in the world. The Ienea are weavers, although each twentieth one is a soldier. The Cottewanias sell fruits, such as the pisang, even as the Sittijs. The Illewanias (Illavars) also sell such fruits as figs and cocoanuts, as well as iagara (Anglo-Indian jaggery), that is, brown sugar. The Kaikulle is a despised people; the women are mostly courtezans, the which is not held to be shame among them; the men are dancers, but some are weavers, some sowers, and some serve as-soldiers. The Sitticaram are merchants, but they differ from the Sittijs aforesaid, who also are merchants, by the sort of wares wherein they deal. The Caltaja are goldsmiths, blacksmiths, stonemasons, carpenters, and builders. The Carreas are fishers who fish with great nets. The Patnouwa fish with little nets. The Maccoba also fish with great nets. The Callia (Kalyara) are likewise fishermen, and have their special mode of fishing. The Conacapule are writers. The Gurrea are herdsmen. The Bargeurrea are also herdsmen, but these are Bergas, which is a race highly honoured among this people. The Riddi (Reddis) are farmers, and some are soldiers. The Camawaer (Kamma Varus) are farmers, though many are soldiers. The Berga-willala are chiefly farmers. The Innadi are mostly soldiers, but a few

Page 246

An Indian spinning-wheel

are farmers. The Moutrea are chiefly soldiers. The caste of Tolowa doth exist no longer, and they say that only the name is known. The caste of Palla is the meanest of all the castes of Soudraes, although it hath somewhat better fame than the Perreaes (Pariahs), of whom we shall speak hereafter. To the Soudraes belongeth also the caste of Correwaes, which is a caste that hath somewhat strange and peculiar; for these people have no home or abiding city, like the other castes, but ever go to and fro through the land with wife and children. They live in little huts, which they set up for a brief space without the cities; and whensoever they depart, they put these huts with their scanty house- hold stuff, together with their pots and pans, on little asses, which they have by them for this end. These people gain their livelihood by making little fans wherewith to fan the rice when it is threshed, and by making covers wherewith the pot is covered when the rice is cooked, so that the water may be let run off from the rice through them. These people also carry salt from the seashore into the country on their little asses; and because that their asses are small and can carry little, therefore are they free of tax in the land and left unmolested. It is said that the women of these Correwaes, who commonly go with a basket under their arm, can prophesy; and since they

Page 247

make the people believe that what they experience is not harmful for them, they receive no small gain from the folk.’

Roger then proceeds to devote a chapter to the subject of the outcast Pariahs, or “Perreaes,” as he calls them, a class despised to such a degree that even the heathen did not deem them worthy to be reckoned among their castes.

In the foregoing division we have spoken of the four chief castes of the heathen nation on the coast of Coromandel and the land thereabout. In this division we shall treat of the Perreaes, the which is a much despised folk among the heathen, and not deemed worthy to be reckoned as a caste among their castes. They will not even suffer them to dwell among them, but these Perreaes and Perresijs (with the first name are named the men, and with the second the women, of this despised people) dwell in places by themselves, living in a quarter of the city and in the open country. Nor do they build their houses in villages, but a great way off from villages, so that they themselves seem to be a little village. They may draw no water from the wells which the villagers use, but have their own wells nigh their houses; and lest the other castes should unwittingly draw water from the wells of the Perreaes, the latter are obliged to put about their wells bones of dead beasts for a sign and a warning that these be Perrea wells; the which is obeyed and fulfilled, whereby the wells are known. These people may not go in the city streets where the Bramines dwell, nor may they

Page 248

Two pariahs

set foot in the open lands in the villages of the Bra-mines; moreover, all entrance into the temple of their god Wistnou, or Eswara (Isvara, or Vishnu), is forbidden. It is said that they are considered unclean by the Bramines, and, by reason of their uncleanness, they would therefore defile the Bra-mines and also the temples, which are held to be sacred places.

These people gain their livelihood in the land by sowing, by digging and delving, and by the muring of houses, which are made of earth; and they build well-nigh all the houses of the common people, for the carpenter findeth little work there, and ofttimes none. Likewise, they perform all foul tasks that no one else will do; and are fain thereto, for that is their calling. These people be very foul of food, for besides edible stuff, they eat cows, horses, goats, hens, and all manner of beasts that have died, so that it is no marvel that they are right little esteemed and are held to be unclean, especially by the Bramines, who hold so much to outward purity, like as the Pharisees.

Of this caste there are two sorts, the first whereof is called simply Perreaes, and the other Siriperen. The handiwork of the latter is to go about with leather and to prepare it, making bridles thereof and other more

Page 249

things for beasts. Some of them serve as soldiers. The Perreaes first named are held to be better in caste than the second, wherefore they may in no wise eat in the houses of the Siriperen. Nevertheless, the Siriperen may well eat in the houses of the Perreaes, and they must also do worship unto them, raising their hands and standing up before them. And since, in the year 1640, a certain Siripere in Paliacatta would not do this, the Perreaes seized him and cut off his hair, the which is the greatest affront and shame that can be done to any one.

When these Siriperen marry, they may not erect any pandael (shed) with more than three stakes. You must know that in this land the custom is that, whenever a bride is in the house, some stakes are set up before the door, which are covered above, somewhat higher than a man, with lighter sticks, on which verdure is laid to cast shade beneath; and on the stakes which are the posts and stand upright, pisang leaves are fastened as tokens of joy. The structure aforesaid is called pandael in the language of the country. Now in the construction of such a pandael these people may have no more than three stakes, and in case they should transgress herein, the entire city would be in an uproar.

On the neck of these people lieth certain servitude, since whensoever one of the caste of Comitijs, Sittijs, oil-millers, Palijs, smiths, or goldsmiths, is dead, and of wealth, and will have a shroud bought for him, the which they give to the Siriperen, then must these Siriperen dishevel their beards; and whensoever the dead

Page 250

The Katkaris, a wild tribe in Western India

man is brought outside the city or village to be burnt or buried, they must go behind the corpse. But those that are not wealthy merely bid them go behind the corpse, and give to each of the aforesaid, in consideration of this, a fanum, or one and one-half, that is, a piece of money that is there worth seven groats.

The Bramin Padmanaba said that the Bramines had their name from Bramma (Brahma) and that they bear this name in honour of him, reckoning themselves to be descended from him. It is, indeed, true that they feel that the other castes likewise are descended from him;

Page 251

nevertheless, they receive their name from Bramma for that they be sprung from his chief est part, namely, from his head; whilst that the Settreaes are sprung from his arms, the Weinsjas from his thighs, and the Soudraes from his feet: the which is used by the Bramines for a proof of their greater worthiness above other castes. The Bramines are distinguished from one another both in respect of their faith and in respect of their manner of life. In respect of their faith the Bramines are of six kinds: the Weistnouwa, the Seivia, the Smaerta, the Schaerwaecka, the Pasenda, and the Tschectea (Vaishnavas, Saivas, Smartas, Sarvakas, Pasendas (?), Saktas).

They of the sect of the Weistnouwa (Vaishnavas) say that Wistnou (Vishnu) is the highest god, and that none is like unto him; and for that they recognize Wistnou as the highest god, are they called Weistnouwa. Moreover, they of the caste of the Soudraes, whensoever they agree in their faith with these, are termed daetseri, that is, “servants.” But it must be known that, when they are so called, it is to be understood, as the Bramin Padmanaba said, that they are servants to the Bramines; which service the Bramines hold to be a great honour for the Soudraes, in that they should be esteemed worthy to be servants to the Bra-mines. They persuade these people that the deity esteemeth the service which they do the Bramines even as it were done to himself; and they testify to the Soudraes that whosoever of their caste yieldeth up his life to protect Bramines, cometh after death to the

Page 252

realm of Dewendre (Devendra, or the god Indra). So, whensoever Bramines are named Daetsja, or Dasa, which also betokeneth “servant,” it must be understood that they are servants to God and peculiar to Him; but it is not to be understood of them as of the Soudraes, for it lieth far from them to confess that they be servants to any caste.

The sect of Weistnouwa aforesaid is again divided into two parts, the first being named Tadwadi Weistnouwa or Madwa Weistnouwa. This name they bear from Tadwadi Weistnouwa, for that they, so they pretend, are mighty disputants, who know how to discourse profoundly of God and of divine matters, and to defend their words. For in the Samscortam tongue tadwadi betokeneth “disputant,” and tadwa “knowledge of God.” And the name of Madwa they bear from one Madwa Atsjaria (Madhava Acharya), who, they say, was the first finder, or poet, of this sect. The second sort of Weistnouwa are called Ramanouja Weistnouwa. This name of Ramanouja they have from one Ramanouja Atsjaria (Ramanuja Acharya), who was a founder and poet of this sect. Each of these Weistnouwa hath his own special mode and manner of marking himself. The Tadwadi mark themselves daily with a little white stripe which runneth from the nose up to the forehead, and also on the sides of the head to the place where the arms are joined to the shoulder-blades; and likewise on both breasts with a round mark as large as a double stiver. They say that this is the mark of Wistnou, and that it serveth them as a weapon whereby

Page 253

Caste Marks

From Birdwood’s Indian Arts.

Nos. 1–5, Brahma and the Trimurti.

Nos. 6–35, Sectarial Marks of the Vaishnavas.

Nos. 36–49, Sectarial Marks of the Saivas.

No. 70, Mark of the Sakti Sects.

Nos. 71–74, Marks of the Buddhists and Jainas

Page 254

Blank page

Page 255

they are protected against the devil, or Iamma (Yama), the judge of hell, so that none of them may lay hands upon them or draw nigh them.

The Tadwadi promise Wistnou to acknowledge him as the only god and to obey him without accepting any other one deity or obeying any other god. Nevertheless, they add hereto that it is not enough to make such a promise, but that a godly and virtuous life must be led at all times, and that a promise which is not fulfilled shall profit nothing, but that such service shall find its meet punishment. The Tadwadi Weistnouwa have a chief of their sect who liveth in the neighbourhood of Paliacatta, in a place called Combeconne, where he is well known. He weareth no cord about his neck like the other Bramines, nor hath he any wife, but when he entereth upon his dignity, he leaveth all, and commonly goeth with a bamboo reed in his hand.

The Ramanouja Weistnouwa mark themselves with a mark which is almost a Greek upsilon, making it on the forehead extending upward from the nose. For this they use namou, a material almost like white chalk; but where the arms join the shoulder-blades, they brand another mark, and say that this mark branded in their flesh is enough, and that they need not mark all their limbs daily. They say that when they have given themselves to their god with a good and upright heart, and have promised to be his servants without recognizing any other, that this is enough, and that, even if they do not conduct themselves well for the rest of their life, nevertheless God will be gracious unto them because

Page 256

of their promise, and that he will not reckon the evil end of a sinful life to their punishment. They say that Wistnou will never abandon those whom he hath accepted in his love; and they add hereto that no father can kill his child that goeth astray; that man cannot live without sin; and that it is therefore impossible that Wistnou, having accepted any one, should again abandon him. There are, moreover, many other things wherein these Ramanouja differ from the Tad-wadi Weistnouwa.

These Ramanouja Weistnouwa may not cover their heads with any covering, as the other Bramines do, but go bareheaded. Their hair is cut short, except a tuft on the crown of their head, which hangeth down behind and hath a knot tied in it. Nevertheless, the chief of this sect, who hath his residence in Cansjewaram (Conjevaram), a very great city in the kingdom of Carnatica (the Karnatic), and therefore is a man of honour and regard, hath the pre-eminence over his fellows in that he may have a covering on his head; yet not always hath he such a covering, but whensoever he standeth to speak with any.

The Ramanouja say that their sect is better than the Tadwadi, and therefore they say that they may not meddle in any mercature, and also that they go not into bawdy houses, else might it hap to any one of them to be bitterly and severely punished by their chief for this sin. Nor is it permitted the Tadwadi to go into such houses, yet even if they do it, yet are they neither reproved nor punished, as is the case among the Ramanouja,

Page 257

Sculptures of a southern Indian Temple

even as the Bramin Damersa, being of the sect of the Tadwadi, hath himself borne witness.

The second sect of the Bramines, named Seivia (Saivites) and also Aradh-iha (Sanskrit Ardaya, “worshipful”), say that one Eswara (Isvara, Siva) is the highest god, and that all others stand below him and

Page 258

A Statue of the God Siva at Vellore in Southern India

The Hindu divine triad consists of Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Siva the Destroyer. The Indian representations of Siva, or Mahadeva, as he is often called, are many and various, but he always holds in one of his hands the “trisul,” or trident, as his characteristic emblem.

are less than he, yea, even Wistnou, whom the Weistnouwa pretend to be the chiefest god. Those of the Soudra caste who agree herein with these Bramines are called Sjangam (Sanskrit sanga, “company”). This sect mark their heads with three or four streaks of ashes of burnt cow-dung. Some of them wear about their necks a certain stone, or idol, which they call lingam, and some wear it in the hair of their heads; they let their children, when they are eight or ten years old, wear it covered with wax, bound to their arm with a cord. They that wear this lingam, do it for a proof and open avowal that they put their full trust and confidence in Eswara, and that they recognize no other god but him. The Soudraes who wear this lingam refrain from fish and flesh and from all that hath died, even as the Bramines.

The third sect is called Smaerta (Sanskrit, Smarta, “traditionalists”) and had, as the Bramin Padmanaba testified, who himself was of this sect, one Sancra Atsjaria (Sankara Acharya) as a poet and founder of their sect. They say that Wistnou and Eswara are one, even though they be worshipped under different images, and they are averse to some saying that Wistnou is the chiefest god and object to others esteeming Eswara as of this rank. I have not been able to find that these Smaertas mark themselves outwardly with any mark whereby they may be distinguished from each other. They seem not to have many followers among the common folk, since this matter is somewhat too high for their understanding and their concept cannot be attained,

Page 259

and this the less since the Bramines hold it as a mystery.

The fourth sort, called Schaerwaecka (Sarvaka), are of the race of Epicureans and believe that life is the end of man, and that after this life no other followeth. All that others say of the future life, that they deny, and say that men must prove and show to them so that they may see with their own eyes; otherwise, they will not believe. The Bramin Padmanaba said that if in their dealings with men they conduct themselves well, they do it not to gain any good therefor in the future life, but to win them praise from men. These seem mostly to be of the humour of Pliny, who ridiculed all that men say of the abode of the soul after the death of the body, and who held such things for madness and a dream; and said that after the corpse is dead, there remaineth no more of the man than there was before he was conceived and born; and who laughed at those who believed that souls survived, and sought thereby to console themselves in the hour of death.

The fifth sect are called Pasenda. They say that the law, that is, the teaching which is taught everywhere amongst the heathen, is not true; nor do they regard it, but care alone for their belly and let all go its own gait; inasmuch as they hold with the former sort that man endeth with this life. How can it be, they say, that a man who is burnt to ashes and hath become dust should again be made alive’? Yet herein they argue not nor speak against the Christian belief of the resurrection of the dead, whereof they have

Page 260

A Toda hut at Utakamund in southern India

no knowledge, but in this they do attack the notion of the heathen, who believe in the cycle of the ages and pretend that sometime the day will come when all shall be again even as it now is. That belief they reject and will have none of it. These, said the Bramin Padmanaba, are worse than the preceding, not alone because they have this belief and regard not caste, but also because, even as the beasts, they make no difference between father and mother, brother and sister; they eat with each one of them, they sleep with each one of them, and say that in the person of another woman they but mate with their own wives. The Bramin Padmanaba testified that this godlessness sprang up because that these men sought not for a good name among mankind nor expected any other life after this life.

Page 261

Nevertheless they are afraid, like the preceding, to avow their belief openly, for that they fear peril of their lives, since the zealous souls of others could not endure this horrible godlessness, but such would readily fall upon them, even as many of them have been killed for this belief aforetime.

The sixth sect is named Tschectea (Saktis), who say that neither Wistnou nor Eswara is the chief god, but one Tschecti (Skt. Sakti, “power”), from whom Wistnou, Eswara, and Bramma have their origin, and that they exist through his might, and that the world and all that is therein hath its being through him. These are like the aforesaid in that they will not submit themselves to the Vedam, but require that men shall prove all things to them so that they may see it with their own eyes and that their hands may handle it. These three last sects are held as heretics by the heathen and have but few followers of their evil belief.’

In the eleventh chapter of the first book of his “Open Door” Roger deals with the subject of marriage among the Brahmans, telling of the early age at which children are married and the manner in which the match is made, and describing the performance of the marriage ceremony.

‘The Bramins are concerned right early to see that their sons obtain a wife and their daughters a husband; but it must be known that the Bramines, the Settreas, and also the Weinsjas may not take this matter in hand before that their sons have received the Brahmanical cord. They that be wealthy and rich are much earlier

Page 262

about this matter than they that be poor, and the rich are ofttimes busied herewith when their children are but eight years old, yea, some so soon as they have received the cord, that is, in their fifth year. And it is also carefully observed of the Bramines that they ever look for a daughter who is younger than their son. The reason is, so the Bramin testified, because that the Brambles may not marry women who have already had their flowers; wherefore the Bramines are right careful to marry their daughters off full soon, since if a daughter of a Bramin be not married before her time, no one may take her to wife. Whensoever daughters remain long with their parents, they hide this fact to avoid disquietude, and in order that their daughters may not be prevented from being married. Nevertheless, they of the Settrea caste pay not the least heed hereto, but marry not only with girls who have never had their flowers, but also with those whom they know have had them; though they also hold it more honourable that they give regard to this matter.

Whensoever a Bramin setteth forth to make provision for his son, he must pay right close heed to the omens which meet him, whether they be good or bad; for if an evil omen happeneth to him when he goeth to make his first suit, then must he defer it until ,the next day. If then, before the second journeying, an ill omen meeteth him, he must again defer it till another day. But if again, for the third time, an evil omen encountereth him, then must he wholly abandon his marriage suit, deeming that it will be an unlucky marriage.

Page 263

An indian snake charmer

Now they of the Weinsja caste (of merchants), when any one speaketh of a snake on the day that they purpose to go make their first suit, hold that for an ill omen; but if they see a snake on that day, then must they let the matter rest and never again think of carrying out their purposed suit, since they deem that this would be an evil and unlucky marriage. Also these Weinsja take a half pagode, or a half-ducat of

Page 264

gold, the which they melt, and if the molten gold showeth clear, they hold it for a good omen and think that it is proper to proceed with the marriage; but if it showeth dark, it is an ill omen and the marriage is deferred. Nevertheless, the Bramines hold very little to this omen.

Whenever a daughter is sought in marriage by any one, then must the father of the daughter seek to see the man by whom this suit is made, and to have knowledge of his position, and after he hath been acquainted therewith, if the man pleaseth him, he then permitteth the bachelor to come unto the friends of the daughter and that he may also see the daughter with his own eyes. If, then, they fancy each the other, and if this be well pleasing to the friends, the marriage is concluded and confirmed. But those of the Soudra caste will not grant their daughters except the bridegroom count out for the daughter a certain sum of money which the father bespeaketh; so that he seemeth to buy her. Nevertheless, they will not call this money purchase-money, but a gift.

When a marriage is agreed upon, then is a time set for a certain good day, that the friends may come together from every side to perform the ceremonies which are by custom used amongst them whensoever two persons have plighted their marriage troth. And these are as follows: the father of the bride giveth betel to the friends of the bridegroom, and he testifieth in the presence of all them that are there present that he hath given his daughter unto N., sib of the friends there

Page 265

present. Thereat the friends of the bridegroom also give betel to the friends of the bride and bear witness as aforesaid, and they take to be witnesses them that be present. When the time for the marriage is come, then they proceed, with no long delay, to the celebration of their nuptials. I say “when- the time for the marriage is come,” for these heathen do not marry throughout the entire year, but only in the months of February, May, June, October, and in the beginning of November, on certain good days and hours, in the observance whereof they are very nice.

Whensoever the appointed time is come for the marriage to be completed, then prepare they the homam (soma) fire from the wood of a tree which in their tongue is hight rawasittou, and is full holy. This fire is for a witness of the wedlock which is here begun, and thereover the Bramin speaketh a prayer. Thereafter the bridegroom thrice taketh his hands full of rice and casteth it over the head of his bride, and so also doth the bride to the bridegroom. Then the father of the bride taketh some garments, jewels, and the like, according to his ability, and adorneth the bride therewith; and likewise doth he also to the bridegroom. Then washeth he the bridegroom’s feet, and the bride’s mother poureth water over them. Thereafter the father taketh the hand of his daughter in his hand and poureth water therein and some gold; and if that he be rich, he holdeth much more in his hand, and thus he giveth his daughter’s hand over to the bridegroom in the name of God, and saith: “I have no more to do with thee;

Page 266

I give thee over.” But when the father giveth over his daughter’s hand to the bridegroom, then is there on her hand a little cord, whereon is fastened the golden head of an idol, the which they call a tali. This tali is shown to the bystanders, and after some prayers and felicitations, the bridegroom taketh this tali and bindeth it about the neck of his bride; and whereas this knot is tied, so are the bonds of marriage firm; but so long as this tali is not bound by the bridegroom about the bride’s neck, the marriage may be broken off without shame, even though all the things aforesaid have been done. It also happeth among them that whensoever the bridegroom is come to bind the tali on the bride, but doth not give the father enough for a wedding portion, one of them that stand by, envying him the quarry, doth give more and winneth the bride, and the father letteth him succeed, for that he gaineth more gold thereby. The heathen governor at Paliacatta, bight Sinanna, said that this was the custom mostly among the Bramines; but methinks they would deny it for shame, albeit it may well hap, though not so much from greed as from poverty, since for the most part the Bramines have no abundant wealth.

Since the tali aforesaid, bound about the neck of the bride, maketh the marriage tie, therefore, when the husband dieth, it is burnt with him for a token that the bonds of marriage are broken; but if the wife be burnt with her husband, then is the tali burnt with her.

The matters which we have related thus far are performed in the house of the bride; but since the

Page 267

A Toda temple at Utakamund in southern India

wedding is a thing which doth attract the populace and must be known, therefore they make public pronouncement that the marriage is to be performed; and when this cometh to pass, they do it before the eyes of all the world. Accordingly, when they proceed to perform the marriage, they make, a few days before it, a pandael, that is, a shed, before the bride’s door, where the marriage is to be performed. And, if it be possible, they have four pisang-trees, whereby it is known that a marriage is to be performed in such-and-such a house where this structure standeth. On the day that the

Page 268

marriage is performed and the ceremonies aforesaid are observed, which is the first day, the father of the bride giveth a feast unto the friends and also food to the poor, the which lasteth five days in succession, and the homam aforesaid may likewise last the five days. On the seventh day the bride goeth forth with the bridegroom and is borne, even by night, through the principal streets of the city in a palakijn (palanquin) with many torches and bassoons and fireworks, accompanied by their friends, some on horses, some on elephants, since they seek to make their estate honourable in every wise; and thus the bride is brought openly to the house of the bridegroom. There she abideth three or four days if she be young and be yet unable to know man; and then they bring her again to her father’s house. But when she is come to woman’s estate, then she abideth henceforth with her husband.

When the children of the Bramines are wedded, they are no more called bramasarijs (Sanskrit brahmacarya, “chaste”), but grahastas (Sanskrit grihastha, “householder”), and receive the second cord, consisting of three strings. And commonly they add to the second cord the third also, and it serveth them for an upper garment; for the Bramines may not go with the upper part of the body bare And although they go with the upper portions of their persons exposed, as is the common practice, nevertheless, since they have the third cord, they hold it as a garment, and it is counted among them as if they went with their bodies covered. Every ten years that they gain in age, they add yet another

Page 269

cord to the previous ones; and also each time that a child is born to them, they may add a cord to the former ones. This the Vedam doth ordain, yet the Bramin Padmanaba said that it was not obeyed so nicely by all; but the more zealous each among them is in heathendom, the nicer he is to obey whatsoever the Vedam hath ordained respecting these cords.’

‘The Bramines may not marry their children, whether sons or daughters,’ says Roger in his twelfth chapter, ‘ save to those who be of their caste, and herein are they very precise. And although the other castes also do not ordinarily marry their children except to their own caste, nevertheless it doth sometimes come to pass that they give their daughters to men who are of a higher caste, being led thereto by marking the reverence of the caste. But the Bramines cannot be led or enticed by such considerations, since if they should give their daughters to another caste, they must necessarily do despite to their own caste, for that it is the first in reverence.

One might ask, however: “Be there, then, no Bramines who have wives from other castes?” I answer, “Yes,” but that cometh to pass thus: These sons of Bramines, when they are old in years and are no longer content with the wife of their youth, with whom they were wedded by their fathers’ care, but seek to give rein to their lusts and to delight the flesh, ofttimes take to themselves wives of other castes who are well pleasing in their eyes both for the fair comeliness of their bodies and for the colour which adorneth them. Nevertheless,

Page 270

The marble rocks at Jabalpur

according to the opinion of the Bramines themselves, it is a deed of imprudence when a Bramin taketh to himself a wife from the Soudra caste; since whensoever a Bramin leaveth behind him offspring from such a wife, then that Bramin, so they are persuaded,

Page 271

is deprived of heaven on his death, so long as his descendants be on earth. Wherefore the Bramin Padmanaba also said that it was a very great sin to leave offspring by such a wife. In their Poranes (Puranas), that is, ancient histories, it is also found that a certain Bramin of great -fame among them, hight Sandragoupeti Naraia (Chandragupta Narayana), being old, was sore afflicted when he saw that his son Barthrouherri (Bhartrihari), born to him by a wife of the Soudra caste, had three hundred wives, since he concluded therefrom that he must long miss heaven for this cause.

Although the Bramines take such nice heed to whom they marry their children, like as we have understood, nevertheless one might very easily marvel whether they also pay any regard lest they marry them to those who be too near akin to them, either by blood or by affinity. In sooth, they do mind them thereof and have horror of incest. The Bramin Padmanaba, once speaking with me of this matter, said that this was one of the five great sins which may not lightly be forgiven, and that the Vedam had ordained that they who might come to err therein should have their privities cut off and given them in their hands, and that such should then be let die of themselves without permitting them to be healed; but on the women no punishment was laid for this, since they themselves could not fall into this sin save through seducement. In this connection, to show how horrible this sin was deemed among them, the Bramin related that a certain Bramin near Paliacatta, the which still lived, had unwittingly slept with his mother by

Page 272

A Tamil bathing-place at Trichinopoli

night, for that he found her in the place where he was wont to find his wife, and the mother thought that he was her husband. But when this Bramin discovered the sin which he had done, he unmanned himself and went to drown himself. However, he was haled out and cured, for that he had done it unwittingly.

It must be noted, nevertheless, that in the reckoning of blood kinship and affinity, within which it is permitted to wed or not, these heathen differ much from us and from other nations. For among them it is allowed to marry a wife’s sister, yea, to have two, three, and more sisters together; but that two brothers should each have a sister, that is not permitted among them and would be incest. They may also wed the daughter of their father’s sister, but not the daughter of their father’s brother; likewise the daughter of their sister, but not the daughter of their brother. But the Bramin Padmanaba said that, notwithstanding that

Page 273

this last was not permitted to the Bramines, it was allowed to the Soudraes; the which was manifest from the heathen governor Sinanna, who, in the time of my residence at Paliacatta, ruled the city in. the name of the king of Carnatica, who had married his brother’s daughter. The heathen of Siam and Pegu also differ much herein from the heathen on the coast of Coromandel, since they may also wed with their father’s brother’s wife, which these may not do.’

‘The belief of the Hindus,’ continues Roger in another chapter, ‘ is that more or less punishment doth befall the wicked after this life, and that some are to be punished in this world after their death, and some outside this world. And in what fashion all this is to take place we shall now set forth. They believe that it is because of sin that the souls of some pass from their bodies into another body so soon as they die. These heathen agree herein with Plato, who likewise was of the opinion that the soul of one migrateth to another, and not alone into the body of another man, but also into the bodies of beasts. This hath Plato believed, who was a marvel among the heathen in his time; this hath his disciple, Plotinus, also held to be good. But this hath displeased Porphyry, who hath thought that after death the souls of men migrate only into the bodies of men, and not into the bodies of beasts. And the reasons that moved him to make changes in the belief of his master were that he held it shameful for the soul of a mother to migrate into a mule and draw her own son. But he did not take into consideration

Page 274

that it was still more shameful that the soul of a mother might pass into a young girl and be known by her own son. Nevertheless, these heathen make no difficulty either of the one or the other, but it is their firm belief that the souls of men pass from one body to another, whether of men, beasts, or herbs, and that this befalleth each man according to his deeds. But of those who migrate into the bodies of beasts, they deem them the luckiest who enter into kine; since the body of these beasts they hold to be the most lucky gaol or prison, for that they believe that among all sorts of beasts kine are the most acceptable to God, and that Nandi, or Baswa (Sanskrit vrishaba, “bull”), was an ox and the wahanam, that is, carrier, whereon Eswara (Siva) was carried; wherefore these heathen hold kine in high honour. They may not slaughter any of them, but as great horror as the Mohammedans have of pork, so great horror have they of eating beef. I have seen more reverence done a dead ox belonging to a pagoda than if he had been a man; for even as it is the custom, wherever there is a dead man, for bassoons to be blown, so was it done regarding this ox; and moreover he was covered with a robe in stately wise, and had incense burned over him.

They also believe that some persons become devils because of their sins, and that they wander through the air until the time of their punishment be passed. They say that these suffer very great hunger, and that they cannot get a single blade of grass from the earth to fill their hungry bellies, and that they can enjoy

Page 275

A devil dancer of Ceylon

naught from this earth save what is given them by men as alms; and this is the reason that the friends of the deceased put food before the speckled crows for the first nine days after his death, so that if the soul of the departed hath become a devil, nevertheless he may come and eat. According to their belief, these also come sometimes among mega in human guise; but since they can do no harm, therefore they say that none need fear them.

They that be punished outside this world are they who are tormented in Iamma-locon (Sanskrit Yama-loka, “world of Yama”), that is, hell. But it must

Page 276

be known that some of them who are punished in Iamma-locon win forth therefrom after that they have been therein for the space that was ordained them for their sins; and having passed this space, they themselves come again to this world and enter into one or another body. Howbeit, some of them that fare to hell, win not forth, but must be punished there to all eternity, and these are they that fare unto Antam tappes, that is, the pit of darkness. They say that this is a dark pit, which is called Antam tappes because of its darkness; and that they who fall therein never win forth from it, but ever abide there, yet without dying; and that there they must endure all manner of pains and torments. There, they say, are thorns; there are crows with iron beaks; there are savage dogs; there are gnats that bite cruelly; cold, and all that may serve for the increase of pain and torment.

Let us now go investigate also what they believe concerning the state of them who are blessed after their death. Here it must be known that some of them may come again to this world after their death, when that a certain definite space of years be passed; and that some never return, but win to eternal and everlasting beatitude. For them that depart hence but may come again to this world, they say there are seven places, which are Indre-locon or Dewendre-locon, Agni-locon, Niruti-locon, Wajouvia-locon, Cubera-locon, Isanja-locon, and Warrouna-locon. Each of these places is named after the head who ruleth over it. They say that in each of these places they who win to them

The Huge Stone Bull at Tanjore

The bull, usually called Nandi, is the sacred animal of the god Siva or Mahadeva, among the Hindus. One of the most famous images of Sivas bull is the great stone idol at Tanjore in Southern India. This massive figure of black granite, sixteen feet long and twelve feet high, is an object of pious veneration to countless numbers of faithful Hindus.

Page 277

enjoy such beatitude that they wish none better, and even that each one deemeth his own place to be the best. But besides these seven, which are all comprised under the general name Dewendre-locon or Surgam (Sanskrit svarga, “heaven”), is Bramma-locon, that is, the place where Bramma (Brahma) is, which place seemeth to be highest of all unto heaven. They who come thither may also return to this world after that a certain space of years is passed; but these, when they have come again to this world and have lived their time here, then win indubitably to heaven itself, where they abide for ever without returning again to this world.

They that dwell in Surgam call themselves Dewetaes (Sanskrit devata, “divinity”) and are of two sorts. Some abide there for a time and may come again to this world to be reborn; and they believe concerning these that they enjoy all bliss and sleep with women, but without having children. And since that death may not be known in Surgam, therefore they do believe that these Dewetaes, when their time of biding there is lapsed, are thrust out of Surgam with soul and body, and that the soul then passeth into another body and leaveth that in which it was; but the Bramin wot not to say where that the body abode wherewith the Deweta was thrust out of Surgam. Moreover, there be also Dewetaes in Surgam who abide there eternally, since there be the sun, the moon, the stars, and the like. These also beget children who dwell in Surgam. They believe that no sin is done in Surgam, but that God Himself

Page 278

Sculptures of the Hindu Divinities Siva and Parvati, at Ellora

sometimes appeareth unto them and teacheth them.

But the most blessed of all them that pass from this world are they who receive for their lozt Weicontam (Sanskrit Vaikuntha, “Vishnu’s heaven”), that is, heaven itself. Nevertheless, it must be known that the Bramines say that Weicontam is twofold: one, Lila-Weicontam, that is, the sportful heaven; and a heaven which they call simply Weicontam, where God Himself hath His abode. The Bramin Padmanaba said that it was disputed mightily among the Bramines whether

Page 279

they that come unto Lila-Weicontam may return again to this world; some say “nay,” and some “yea.” Concerning the heaven which is hight simply Weicontam, therein are they completely in accord that they who win there return not to this world, but that they there enjoy eternal beatitude. This Weicontam they promise to them that serve Wistnou loyally ever and in all things; but they that are deficient and do this only in part shall, they say, win Surgam. Nevertheless, they believe that there be few who so order their life that after death they win to Weicontam, but that Sur-gam is commonly the lot and portion, even of the best among them.’

This collection transcribed by Chris Gage
hosted by ibiblio Support Wikipedia