Mongolian Interlude | The Chinese Regain Power | The Rise of the Manchus | Emergence of Modern China | The Western Powers Arrive | The Opium War, 1839- 1842 | The Taiping Rebellion, 1851- 1864 | The Self-Strengthening Movement | The Hundred Days Reform and the Aftermath | The Boxer Rebellion, 1899- 1901 | The Republican Revolution of 1911
- Mongolian Interlude
- Vast empire of Kublai Khan
- Mongols subjugated north China, Korea, and the Muslim kingdoms of Central Asia
- Kublai Khan begins drive against Southern Song
- Yuan dynasty established- first alien dynasty to rule all China
- Managing China
- Mongols tried to employ Han bureaucrats
- Han discriminated against
- Mongols preferred non-Chinese from vast Mongol Empire for government positions
- Chinese employed in non-Chinese regions of the empire
- Cultural development
- Major cultural achievements
- Novel
- Drama
- Written vernacular
- Vast empire provided frequent cultural exchange
- Western musical instruments introduced to China
- Chinese printing techniques, porcelain production, playing cards, and medical literature introduced in Europe
- Production of thin glass and cloisonné popular in China
- The Venetian Marco Polo visited Yuan court
- Religious evolution
- Conversion of Chinese in northwest and southwest to Islam from Central Asia
- Nestorianism, Roman Catholicism enjoyed period of toleration
- Buddhism flourished
- Native Taoism endured Mongol persecution
- Major cultural achievements
- Technological development
- Advances in travel literature, cartography and geography, and scientific education
- Public works
- Road and water communications reorganized, improved
- Granaries built throughout empire
- City of Beijing rebuilt
- New palace grounds
- Artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks
- New palace grounds
- Grand Canal completely renovated with terminus in Beijing
- Agricultural innovations
- Introduction of sorghum
- Chinese and Mongol travelers to West provided assistance in hydraulic engineering
- Vast empire of Kublai Khan
- The Chinese Regain Power
- Collapse of the Yuan dynasty
- Rivalry among Mongol imperial heirs
- Natural disasters
- Peasant uprisings
- The Ming dynasty
- Founded by Buddhist monk turned rebel leader
- Capital moved from Nanjing to Beijing
- Chinese armies reconquered Annam
- Major regional power
- Naval expeditions
- Tribute or 'Treasure' fleets
- Sailed Indian ocean and eastern African coast
- Stopped suddenly in 1433
- Neo-Confucian pressure
- Naval expeditions
- 'Golden Age'
- Stability
- Government, arts, population (100 million), economy, society, politics
- Promoted belief that they had the most satisfactory civilization on earth
- Nothing foreign was needed
- Stability
- Fall of the Ming dynasty
- Long wars with the Mongols
- Incursions by Japanese into Korea
- Collapse of the Yuan dynasty
- The Rise of the Manchus
- Last imperial dynasty (Qing) established in 1644
- Sinicization of ruling Manchus
- Assimilated Chinese culture before conquering China Proper
- Manchus retained many institutions of Ming and earlier Chinese derivation
- They continued Confucian court practices, temple rituals
- Continued Confucian civil service system
- Chinese barred from highest offices
- Chinese predominated over Manchus outside the capital, except military positions
- Manchu emperors supported Chinese literary, historical projects
- Survival of China's ancient literature attributed to projects
- Manchurian purity
- Han Chinese prohibited from migrating into Manchu homeland
- Manchus forbidden to engage in trade, manual labor
- Intermarriage between the two groups forbidden
- Expansion
- China Proper subdued
- Outer Mongolia conquered
- Gained control of Central Asia as far as Pamir Mountains
- Established protectorate over Tibet
- Taiwan incorporated into China for first time
- Qing emperors received tribute from border states
- Threats
- Western traders, missionaries, soldiers of fortune arrived before Manchus in southern coast
- Emergence of Modern China
- Autumn of the Qing dynasty
- Empire's inability to evaluate nature of new challenge, respond flexibly resulted Qing fall and collapse of dynastic rule
- Empire confronted with challenges from Western powers
- Centuries of peace encouraged little change in attitudes of ruling elite
- Neo-Confucian scholars believed in cultural superiority of Chinese civilization
- Innovation, adoption of foreign ideas viewed as heresy
- Imperial purges of those who deviated from orthodoxy
- Economic turmoil
- Bulging population (300,000,000) led to unemployment
- Scarcity of land led to rural discontent
- Corruption of bureaucratic, military systems
- Urban pauperism
- Revolution begins
- Localized revolts erupted in parts of empire in early 19th century
- Anti-Manchu secret societies gained ground
- White Lotus, Triads
- Autumn of the Qing dynasty
- The Western Powers Arrive
- Portuguese established foothold at Macao (Aomen)
- Monopolize foreign trade at Guangzhou (Canton)
- Spanish, British, French arrive
- No conception at imperial court that Europeans would expect to be treated as cultural, political equals
- Russian exception
- Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689)
- Established border between Siberia and Manchuria (northeast China) along Heilong Jiang (Amur River)
- China's first bilateral agreement with Europe
- Treaty of Kiakhta (1727)
- Delimited remainder of eastern Sino- Russian border
- Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689)
- Russian exception
- Trade
- Officially rebuffed
- Chinese assumption that the empire was not in need of foreign products
- Practically accepted; foreign trade flourished
- After 1760 all foreign trade confined to Guangzhou
- Foreign traders limited to officially licensed Chinese merchant firms (about a dozen)
- Officially rebuffed
- Non official contact with West
- Roman Catholic missionaries
- Jesuits
- Converted only 100,000 by 1800
- Contributed to Chinese knowledge
- Cannon casting, calendar making, geography, mathematics, cartography, music, art, and architecture
- Christianity fitted into Chinese framework
- Christian movement weakened
- Condemned for tolerating Confucian ancestor rites by Papal decision (1704)
- Jesuits
- Roman Catholic missionaries
- Portuguese established foothold at Macao (Aomen)
- The Opium War, 1839- 1842
- Also called 'Arrow War'
- Trade imbalance
- Western demand for Chinese goods
- Tea, silk, porcelain
- No Chinese demand for Western (British) goods
- Western demand for Chinese goods
- Third-party trade
- Western goods sold to India, Southeast Asia
- Raw materials and semi processed goods bought
- Demand for raw materials in China
- Illegal opium primary British export to China (early 19th century)
- Balanced trade deficit
- Opium trade resulted from corrupt officials, greedy merchants
- Balanced trade deficit
- Drastic laws enacted by government (1839) prohibited opium trade
- Qing commissioner sent to Guangzhou (Lin Zexu 1785- 1850)
- Suppressed opium traffic
- Seized stocks of opium
- Destroyed 20,000 chests of British opium
- Detained entire foreign community
- Qing commissioner sent to Guangzhou (Lin Zexu 1785- 1850)
- British retaliation
- Qing underestimated capability of enemy
- Defeat tarnished image of their own imperial power
- Unequal Treaty
- Treaty of Nanjing (1842)
- Signed on British warship Arrow
- Hong Kong ceded to British
- 5 ports opened to foreign residence and trade
- Granted British nationals extraterritoriality
- Abolished licensed monopoly system of trade
- Treaty of Nanjing (1842)
- The Taiping Rebellion, 1851- 1864
- Largest uprising in modern Chinese history
- Territory encompassed Nanjing, Tianjin
- Over 30 million people reported killed
- Causes
- Government neglect of public works
- Natural disasters
- Droughts, famines, floods
- Government inaction
- Natural disasters
- Economic tensions, military defeats at Western hands, anti-Manchu sentiments
- Government neglect of public works
- Hong Xiuquan (1814-64)
- Teacher and unsuccessful imperial examination candidate
- Ideology combined ideals of pre-Confucian utopianism with Protestant beliefs
- Hong's followers
- Consisting of believers and other armed peasant groups, secret societies
- Guizhou Province uprising (1851)
- Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace (Taiping Tianguo)
- Hong self-appointed king
- Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace (Taiping Tianguo)
- New order
- Reconstitute legendary ancient state
- Peasant- owned and tilled land
- Slavery, concubinage, arranged marriage, opium smoking, foot binding, judicial torture, worship of idols to be eliminated
- Reconstitute legendary ancient state
- Rebellion's defeat
- Advocacy of radical social reforms
- Failed to establish stable base areas
- Western military aid
- French, British
- More inclined toward weak Qing than uncertain Taiping
- French, British
- Zeng Guofan (1811-72)
- Appointed imperial commissioner, governor-general of Taiping-controlled territories
- Zeng's army under the command of eminent scholar-generals
- Success gave new power to emerging Han Chinese elite
- The Self-Strengthening Movement
- Opium war, unequal treaties, mass uprisings produced need to strengthen China
- Western practical methods for self- strengthening
- Western science, languages studied
- Military bases, manufacturing, diplomatic practices established according to Western models
- Western practical methods for self- strengthening
- Tongzhi Restoration
- Begun to arrest dynastic, imperial decline
- Engineered by Tongzhi Emperor (1862-74)'s mother Empress Dowager Ci Xi (1835-1908)
- Restore traditional order, apply practical knowledge
- Not genuine program to modernize
- Lack of practical understanding
- Social, political reform needed
- 'Old Ways' led to foreign domination
- Bureaucracy deeply influenced by Neo-Confucian orthodoxy
- Lack of 'Self-Strength'
- Foreign powers carve into Chinese Empire
- Russia invades Manchuria
- Russian diplomats secured secession of all Manchuria north of Heilong Jiang and east of Wusuli Jiang (Ussuri River) (1860 )
- Britain acquired 99-year lease on Kowloon (New Territories), Hong Kong (1898)
- Belgium, Germany gained influence in China
- Foreign settlements in treaty ports became extraterritorial
- Safety guaranteed by foreign military presence
- Vassal states overtaken by Western powers
- French
- Protectorate established over Cambodia (1864)
- Cochin China (southern Vietnam) colonized
- Annam (Vietnam Proper) taken in war (1884-85)
- British
- Gained control over Burma
- Russians
- Gained control over Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang)
- Japanese
- Taiwan, Penghu Islands ceded in Treaty of Shimonoseki (1894-95)
- Hegemony established over Korea
- French
- 'Open Door Policy'
- Proposed by the United States
- All foreign countries would have equal duties, privileges in all treaty ports
- Foreign powers carve into Chinese Empire
- Opium war, unequal treaties, mass uprisings produced need to strengthen China
- The Hundred Days Reform and the Aftermath
- 11 June to 21 September 1898 (103 days)
- Qing emperor, Guangxu (1875-1908) ordered social, institutional reforms
- Effort reflected thinking of a group of progressive scholar-reformers
- Impressed the court with urgency of making innovations for nation's survival
- Influenced by Japanese success with modernization
- Reformers declared China needed more than "self-strengthening"
- Innovation must be accompanied by institutional, ideological change
- Edicts for reform covered broad range of subjects
- Stamping out corruption and remaking academic and civil-service examination systems, legal system, governmental structure, defense establishment, postal services
- Attempted to modernize agriculture, medicine, and mining
- Promoted practical studies instead of Neo-Confucian orthodoxy
- Reform changes were to be brought about under de facto constitutional monarchy
- Opposition intense among ruling elite
- Manchus proposed moderate and gradualist course of change
- Coup d'etat (21 September 1898)
- Supported by ultraconservatives, Yuan Shikai (1859-1916)
- Engineered by Empress Dowager Ci Xi
- Forced Guangxu into seclusion
- Ci Xi took over government as regent
- All new edicts rescinded
- 6 chief advocates of reform excecuted
- 2 reform leaders Kang Youwei (1858-1927), Liang Qichao (1873-1929) fled abroad
- Founded the Baohuang Hui (Protect the Emperor Society) toward constitutional monarchy in China
- The Boxer Rebellion, 1899- 1901
- Secret societies
- Known as Yihetuan (Society of Righteousness and Harmony)
- Known in West as Boxers from the earlier name Yihequan (Righteousness and Harmony Boxers)
- Anti-foreign, anti-Christian movement
- Backed in secret by conservative elements of government
- 1900
- Boxer bands spread over north China, killing Chinese Christians, burning missionary facilities
- Boxers besieged the foreign concessions in Beijing and Tianjin (June)
- Offended countries sent reinforcements
- Qing declared war on invaders
- Foreign reinforcements prevail, occupy north China
- Protocol of 1901
- Ended hostilities
- 10 high officials executed
- Hundreds punished
- Legation Quarter expanded
- Some Chinese fortifications razed
- Foreign troops stationed in China
- Secret societies
- The Republican Revolution of 1911
- Court enacted reform measures (1906)
- Abolition of Confucian-based examination
- Educational and military modernization
- Patterned after Japan
- Experiment in constitutional, parliamentary government
- Establishment of new armies
- Mandate of Heaven is lost
- Failure of reform, Boxer Uprising convinced Chinese that the solution lay in outright revolution
- Old order to be removed with new one patterned after Japan
- Sun Yat-sen (Sun Yixian, 1866- 1925)
- Founded Tongmeng Hui (United League) in Tokyo with Huang Xing (1874-1916) (1905)
- Movement supported by overseas Chinese funds
- Gained political support with regional military officers, reformers who fled China after Hundred Days' Reform
- Founded Tongmeng Hui (United League) in Tokyo with Huang Xing (1874-1916) (1905)
- Three Principles of the People (san min zhuyi)
- Nationalism
- Called for overthrowing the Manchus, ending foreign hegemony over China
- Democracy
- Popularly elected republican form of government
- People's Livelihood
- Aimed at helping common people through regulation of ownership of means of production and land
- Nationalism
- 10 October 1911
- Begun in Wuchang, Hubei Province by discontented modernized army units
- Anti-Qing plot had been uncovered
- Preceded by numerous abortive uprisings, organized protests inside China
- Revolt spread to neighboring cities
- Tongmeng Hui members throughout country rose in immediate support of Wuchang revolutionary forces
- 15 of the 24 provinces declared their independence from Qing empire (November)
- Begun in Wuchang, Hubei Province by discontented modernized army units
- 2,500 year old Chinese Imperial system ends; Chinese Republic is born
- Sun Yat-sen returned to China from United States, inaugurated in Nanjing as provisional president of new Chinese republic (1 January 1912)
- Power in Beijing already passed to commander-in-chief of the imperial army (Yuan Shikai)
- To prevent civil war, possible foreign intervention, Sun agreed to Yuan's demand that China be united under a Beijing government headed by Yuan
- The last Manchu emperor, the child Puyi (Aisinjioro Pu Yi), abdicated (12 February 1912)
- Yuan Shikai sworn in as provisional president of the Republic of China (10 March 1912)
- Court enacted reform measures (1906)