DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY -- NAVAL
HISTORICAL CENTER
805 KIDDER BREESE SE -- WASHINGTON NAVY YARD
WASHINGTON DC 20374-5060
CHAPTER III
THE STRATEGIC BACKGROUND OF OVERLORD
PART I
FORMATION OF THE OVERLORD SYSTEM OF COMMAND
A. Unity of Command: U.S. and British Systems
-
One of the major problems which confronted
American and British High Commands, in the conduct of
cross-channel operations, was that of the method of
assuring effective unity of command. From the time of
the first informal American-British Staff conversations
in 1940-41, there had been agreement in principle on the
necessity of such unified command. It was also agreed
that each country would assume responsibility for the
organization of unified command of operations in regions
under its strategic control. In these earlier discussions,
it had been found necessary to postpone the decision
as to the organization of unified "Combined"
Commands over land, air and sea forces of the two countries
and of their allies and associates assigned to
future offensive operations. In 1942 and in 1943 there
were a long series of discussions of the system of Combined
Commands for the cross-channel operation then
being planned.
-
When the outline plan for OVERLORD was submitted
to the C.C.S. in August 1943, COSSAC pointed out the
necessity both of establishing at once the system of
command to be used, and of designating the principal Commander
at the earliest possible moment. The responsible
heads of the U.S. and Royal Navies were able to agree
forthwith on proposals for Naval Command Organization and
Commanders. But the C.C.S. delayed the selection of the
Supreme Commander and the Land Force Commander until December
1943, moreover, they did not agree on the system of
combined commands until mid-February 1944, and the air
command was not finally established until the middle of April.
--171--
-
The origins of the system of command employed in
OVERLORD ante-date American entry into the war. In 1927,
the United States Army and Navy had agreed to a system of
unified command in operations requiring joint action. As
modified in 1935, this system provided that Army and Navy
forces engaged in single operations would be formed into
Task Forces each under the command of the Senior Officer
of whichever service was pre-eminently concerned. The
task force commander was to exercise operational control
in accordance with principles of unity of command as laid
down in an agreed doctrine.1
-
When the European Theater of Operations was established
in the summer of 1942, Admiral King and General Marshall
agreed that "the U.S. Army will exercise unity of command
over U.S. Forces involved during the joint phases of the
planning, the preparations, and the military operations,
respecting the movement to, the reception and maintenance
of U.S. Forces in the United Kingdom. ... Such unity of
command will be as prescribed in Chapter II, Para. 9 B (3)
and (10) of the Joint Action of the U.S. Army and Navy. ...
The U.S. Army will make the necessary arrangements with
the British, respecting command of combined operations of
U.S. and British forces in Western Europe."2
This agreement
was incorporated in a directive to Commander, U.S. Naval
Forces, Europe, and in the directive establishing the European
Theater of Operations, U.S. Army.3
--172--
-
The British had assured the coordination of army-
navy-air effort in amphibious operations in a different way.
Prior to American participation, they had established an
authority called the Combined Commanders, composed of a CinC
Land Forces, a CinC Naval Forces, a CinC Air Forces, and
the Chief of Combined Operations.1
These Commanders were to
exercise command jointly whenever a combined operation was to
be executed. Each CinC came under the control of his own
service ministry, and unification of authority was not obtained
except in the War Cabinet under Mr. Churchill.2
--173--
In addition each of the Combined Commanders was the senior
officer of one of the services, in the standing organization
of the British Forces. Responsibility for the planning
or conduct of the cross-channel operation was thus
only an additional assignment for each of them, as their
basic tasks were respectively to operate the Dover Command,
or the Fighter Air Forces defending Britain or the Land
Forces charged with repelling an invasion of England.
B. 1942 Plans for a Supreme Allied Command
-
The British Combined Commanders had made considerable
progress before April 1942 in drawing plans and making
preparations for anticipated European and Mediterranean
operations. As corresponding American and allied plans and
preparations had not yet been made, it was necessary to
adapt the British organization and preparations to combined
purposes. In order to put the British Combined Commanders
on an allied basis General Marshall during his visit to
England in April 1942 arranged with the British Chiefs of
Staff: (1) for the addition of an American planning staff
to the Combined Commanders' organization; 1
and (2) for the
establishment of a Unified Anglo-American field command.
The British at first were against the establishment of such
a unified field command, believing that their "committee",
the Combined Commanders, provided all the interservice coordination
required. But, after discussion with General
Eisenhower in May and June 1942, they agreed to a combined
American-British command under a Supreme Allied Commander,
on condition that three service C's in C were provided for
in the next echelon of command below the SAC.2
This concession
by the British only partially met the American desire
for Unified Command by the designation of a Supreme
Commander to exercise "direct" command over military forces
without interposing service C's in C. The British were not
--174--
then prepared to go further in accepting the American
proposal and this system was temporarily adopted.1
-
As the CCS did not decide until the end of July
1942 whether to invade France or North Africa, it was
agreed that until this decision was made, the Supreme
Allied Commander to be designated should exercise command
over all contemplated operations, with a Deputy for Cross
Channel Operations. D/SAC would be detached and retained
in England for further planning in case the African Operation
was executed.2
In July 1942, General Eisenhower, who
had assumed duty as Commanding General, U.S. Army, European
Theater of Operations (ETOUSA) on 24 June 1942
3
was designated Supreme Allied Commander.4
--175--
When the CCS decided to invade North Africa, General
Eisenhower was directed to command the Allied Forces.
The Deputy Supreme Commander, and British personnel of the
Combined Commanders' organization, were detached from
Eisenhower's command, to continue work on plans and preparations
for future cross channel operations.1
This was
the organization which formed the nucleus of COSSAC's staff,
in January 1943, when this post was created by the CCS, to
draw up the OVERLORD appreciation and outline plan.
-
A compromise system, employing both the U.S. principle
of a Supreme Commander, and the British principle of
service C's in C, had thus been temporarily adopted as an
expedient for the TORCH Operation. The American Chiefs of
Staff continued their support of a system of unified command,
to be exercised by a Supreme Allied Commander normally exercising
"direct" command over forces assigned, and without
interposing service C's in C.2
General Marshall, however,
--176--
did not believe that the CCS should lay down hard and fast
"orders" governing the internal organization of the Supreme
Commander's forces. He believed that the CCS should formulate
a body of rules for the "guidance" of the Supreme Commander,
to be used by him as "doctrine" but not to be binding
on him. When such a "doctrine" of command should be
approved in principle by the CCS, the Supreme Commander should
be guided by it in meeting the requirements of any given situation.
-
The British Chiefs of Staff, however, were not prepared
to agree that even in such a "doctrine", service C's
in C should not be interposed between the Supreme Commander
and his forces, or that the CCS should refrain from directing
the Supreme Commander to employ such service commanders
in designated posts. A compromise paper was accordingly
prepared which incorporated both the British and American
ideas.1
The agreed "doctrine" was defined in the following terms:
-
"Unified Command is the control, exercised by
a designated commander, over a force integrated
from combined and joint forces allocated to him
for the accomplishment of a mission or task. This
force will include all the means considered necessary
for the mission's successful execution. Unified
command vests in the designated commander the
responsibility and authority to control the operations
of all arms and services composing his force,
by the organization of task forces, assignment of
missions, designation of objectives, and the exercise
of such control as he deems necessary to insure the
success of his mission. Unified command does not
authorise the commander exercising it to control the
administration and discipline of any forces of the
United Nations composing his command, beyond those
necessary for effective control.
-
"The term "joint" refers to participation of
forces from two or more of the arms (United States)
or services (British) of one nation.
-
"The term "combined" refers to the participation
of forces of two or more of the United Nations.----
-
"In cases where the Governments concerned so
decide, a Supreme Commander will be appointed for
--177--
operations when forces of more than one of the
United Nations are to be employed on a specific
mission or task.
-
"He will be appointed by agreement between
the Governments concerned at the earliest possible
moment after the decision to undertake an operation
has been made.
-
"He will exercise unified command over all
forces of the United Nations allocated to his operation.
-
"He will be the recipient of all major directives
pertaining to the arms and services of his force.
-
"Out of the means allocated to him he will
organize task forces as necessary, designate their
commanders, and assign the major tasks to be performed
by each.
-
"He will be assisted by a small composite
staff which will include in principle a Chief
of Staff, a Planning Division, an Operations
Division, an Intelligence Division, a Logistical
Division, and a Communications Center. Each
nation involved and each of the several component
arms or services of the force will be represented
on the Staff in order to ensure an
understanding of the capabilities, requirements,
and limitations of each component. ----
-
"The officer appointed by the Combined
Chiefs of Staff as the Senior Officer of each
combined arm or service not specifically allocated
to task forces by the Supreme Commander,
and will advise the Supreme Commander on the
best use of his own combined arm or service.
-
"These commanders will carry out their duties
at the headquarters of the Supreme Commander unless
specifically ordered otherwise by him.----
-
"Task Force Commanders will organize their
commands as may be necessary for the execution of
the tasks assigned. Sub-Task Force Commanders
--178--
will be designated as may be necessary for the
execution of the subordinate tasks assigned.
The principle of unified command will apply
throughout.
-
"The organization of task forces will be
governed by the nature of the operations to
be performed. The task force will include all
the elements - land, air and naval necessary
for the accomplishment of the task. The appointment
of the task force commanders, subordinate
as well as major, will be governed by the nature
of the task assigned, and the major arm or service
involved in its performance, i.e., whether
preponderantly land, air or naval.----
-
"In so far as conditions will permit, task
forces will be composed of units of the same
nationality. When organizations of one nation
serve under the command of an officer of another
the principle will be maintained that such organizations
shall be kept intact and not scattered
among other units."
C. 1943 Discussions of Combined Command Systems.
(Casablanca Conference: COSSAC Proposals)
-
The "doctrine" thus proposed as a compromise in
November 1942 was adopted at the CCS 67th meeting of 22
January 1943.1
The views of Admiral King about this were:
"The United Nations Navy members --- state that,
while this paper does not in its entirety accord
with their views, it is believed that it presents
with best agreement which can be reached at this
time. The United States Navy members believe that
the status of the assistants to Supreme Commander,
because of the possible interpretation of their
functions, may result in actually interposing an
additional element in the chain of command which
would limit the authority of the Supreme Commander."
2
--179--
-
The British insistence on having service C-in-C's
designated to command respectively under the Supreme Commander
the combined sea, air, and land forces, committed to
a specific combined amphibious operation, reflected both
the traditional British command organization and the specific
functions of such commands in the Northwest European
and Mediterranean Theatres. This command organization had
been functioning during the three years in which British
forces had already been operating in the war in Europe. It
therefore seemed normal to the British Chiefs of Staff that
officers already holding area commands, should be designated
as the service C-in-C of their arm for any offensive operation
in that area.
-
For example, Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, R.N.
who was designated allied Naval C-in-C for the invasion of
Sicily, was primarily the Royal Navy Commander in the Mediterranean.
As such he communicated directly with and took
orders directly from the Admiralty without reference either
to the CCS or to the Supreme Commander, in the execution of
Royal Naval tasks, particularly in the Eastern Mediterranean,
which were no part of the Supreme Commanders responsibility.
He was also responsible for the internal administration and
logistics of the Royal Navy, both those parts serving within
and those parts operating outside of the Supreme Commanders
responsibility. In the British vernacular of the time, he
was "wearing two hats". From the strictly Naval point of
view this had another disadvantage. When U.S. Naval Forces
were assigned to perform a specific task, such as the movement
and support of the U.S. Army invading Sicily, Admiral
Cunningham would tend to consider them as part of his total
resources, which he could utilize for accomplishing all of his
many tasks. U.S. Naval forces placed under his command as
part of the combined Naval force might then be diverted from
the task for which they had been assigned to the Mediterranean
and employed in other roles. Moreover the assignment of U.S.
naval units to operations under the Royal Navy organization
tended to involve unnecessarily the British command in the internal
administrative and logistic affairs of the U.S. Navy.1
--180--
-
CCS 75/3 had provided an agreed principle for
command of combined operations in general. It is a curious
coincidence that the first agreements regarding the OVERLORD
command structure in particular, should have been
reached at the very same Casablanca CCS meeting. At this
67th meeting, the CCS agreed:
-
That OVERLORD would be under the command
of a British Officer as Supreme Allied
Commander.
-
"Under him (the SAC), will be subordinate
commanders air, land and sea", the land
commander acting also as deputy SAC.
-
"Under these commanders will be two Task
Forces....".1
-
Pursuant to this conception of the OVERLORD command
structure, COSSAC later (July 1943) recommended the following
system of land command.
"A study of this operation from the initial assault to
the final achievement of our objects shows that command and
control of the land forces will be simplified to the utmost
extent possible if the following recommendations are accepted:
-
Lines of communication will be simplified if
the British Canadian forces are based on ports
nearest the United Kingdom. In consequence,
United States forces should normally be on the
right of the line, British-Canadian forces on
the left.
-
Formations of one nationality must expect on
occasions to be under command of a higher
formation of the other nationality. Normally
it should not be necessary to place a formation
lower than a corps under command of another
nationality.
--181--
-
It will simplify the development of the
operation if formations of both nationalities
take part in the initial assault,
United States on the right, British on the
left; any other arrangement is likely to
lead to very great confusion.
-
It will simplify control and further development
of the operation if the initial
assault is carried out under the command
of a British Army Commander.
-
It will simplify control, if the subsequent
operations up till the capture of the
Brittany Peninsula or the establishment
of a United States Army Group H.Q. on the
Continent, whichever occurs first, are
carried out under the command of the Commander
of the British-Canadian Army Group."
1
D. Quebec Conference decisions:
Delay in Designation of Supreme Allied Commander
-
When COSSAC's OVERLORD plan was presented to the
CCS, the American views as to the combined commands had
changed in two respects:
- General Marshall had become reconciled
to the idea of employing service C's in C;
but
-
he now intended to propose that both the
Supreme Commander and the commander of land
forces should be U.S. Army Officers.2
Hence it seemed appropriate that the U.S. should agree to the
selection of British officers as Naval and Air Commanders.3
Accordingly Admiral King acquiesced both in the British proposal
to appoint Admiral Little R.N. as OVERLORD Naval Commander
in Chief, and in the later Admiralty decision to substitute
Admiral Ramsay for Admiral Little.4
Similarly General
Arnold agreed to the appointment of Air Chief Marshal Sir
--182--
Trafford Leigh-Mallory as OVERLORD Air Commander in Chief.1
These two appointments were therefore formally approved, on
20 August, at the Quebec Conference.
-
General Marshall did not put formally forward his
own proposals for the designation of U.S. officers as SAC and
as the land commander. No agreement was therefore reached
as to the choice of a Supreme Commander, but General Morgan,
as Chief of Staff to a future Supreme Commander, (COSSAC) was
authorized to proceed with detailed planning and full preparations.2
But General Morgan's position had in fact become
an impossible one. Without the fundamentals settled,
COSSAC could make no firm decisions regarding details.
-
The question of the Supreme Command was thus doubly
confused. Not only was the name and nationality of the Supreme
Commander undecided, but also the system of command to be employed
had not been determined. Early in November, General
Marshall proposed the unification of the European-Mediterraen
commands. He suggested that an overall Supreme Allied
Commander should be appointed, having under him three subordinate
Supreme Allied Commanders, namely (l) SAC Mediterranean,
(2) SAC OVERLORD (3) SAC Strategical Air Forces.3
In
presenting this proposal it was pointed out that:
-
The war against Germany had become one
battle with three attacks, a - combined
operations from the Mediterranean, b -
combined operations from the United Kingdom,
c - combined strategical air operations
from the entire periphery around Germany;
-
Each of these operations was a unity requiring
unified command;
-
Overall command of strategic bombing was imperative;
-
The coordination of the air offensive, with
Army and Navy operations in the Mediterranean
and from the United Kingdom, required an overall
Supreme Commander.4
--183--
-
This proposal for designation of an Over-all
Supreme Commander for all American-British forces engaged
in operations against Germany was not approved, and only
added to the general confusion in OVERLORD preparation.
The British Chiefs of Staff would not agree to this proposal
for the following reasons:
-
one Overall SAC would have no real
authority, because major strategic
moves had in any case to be decided
by the CCS;
-
the over-all SAC would not be able
to deal with propaganda, subversive
activity, diplomatic efforts to entangle
other nations, and other
methods of indirect warfare;
-
the existing machinery, under which the
CCS exercised general strategic direction
of all war operations, utilizing area
Supreme Commanders, for each combined
offensive action seemed a preferable method
of dealing with all problems involved in
operations in Europe.1
-
The question of the Air Command also still remained
undecided. The British desired to put only the
tactical air forces under the command of the OVERLORD Air
CinC, and to leave command of the strategic air forces
to the Chief of Air Staff who would be responsible for
providing the strategic bombers required for the OVERLORD
operation.2
General Arnold on the other hand, wanted the
Strategic Air Forces of both Britain and America to operate
under a single air commander who would be placed directly
under the Supreme OVERLORD commander.3
This plan would
have placed the entire strategical air forces of both Britain
and the U.S., in both the Mediterranean and the United
Kingdom, under one command.4
--184--
The OVERLORD Air C-in-C would then have kept control of
only part of the OVERLORD air effort. Leigh-Mallory
wanted to direct both Strategical and Tactical OVERLORD
air operations. General Marshall preferred to leave the
whole question to the Supreme Commander, provided the
Supreme Commander should be an American Army officer.
Another very important question left undecided was whether
the strategical air forces should be directly under the
command of the Supreme Commander, or should be operated
independently to meet OVERLORD requirements. Not until
the CCS had decided this important point in mid March
was the air command finally established.1
The strategic
air forces finally passed under the control of SCAEF,
acting through his Air CinC only on 14 April. This left
them a month and a half to draw up their plans, which
were in fact not completed until after the assault forces
were on their way to Normandy.2
-
The organization of the ground forces command
also remained for later decision. At Quebec, the question
of the Army Command was not formally discussed. The
British General, Sir Bernard Paget, was acting with COSSAC's
staff as CinC 21 Army Group, but he had no clearly defined
status and held only a temporary appointment.3
General
Devers and the acting U.S. Theater Commander has proposed that
the British and U.S. parts of the OVERLORD should be
under separate command, with the U.S. Army, Navy and Air
Force under a U.S. Army commander executing one half of
the assault, and with British forces under a British Commander
executing the other half.4
General Marshall favored
the appointment of an American general to command both British
and U.S. land forces under the Supreme Allied Commander.5
--185--
E. Establishment of OVERLORD Command:
General EISENHOWER Designated S.A.C.
-
The President and the Prime Minister with the
U.S. and British Chiefs of Staff met in the Sextant Conference
at Cairo in November 1943. No final decision,
either as to the OVERLORD operation, nor as to the supreme
command was reached in the first part of this conference.
When the conference was continued at Teheran with Marshal
Stalin and the Soviet Chiefs of Staff such decisions were
finally made. When the discussion began at Teheran, 28
November 1943, the President and the Prime Minister had
agreed on General Eisenhower as Supreme Commander and on
the names of the three Service C-in-C's. General Marshall
however was not prepared to agree to the appointment of
General Montgomery as C-in-C Land Forces, except for the
assault phase of the operation. The American Chiefs of
Staff envisaged two army groups, one British and one U.S.,
each under its own commander and wished this to be specified
in the CCS directive setting out the OVERLORD chain
of command. General Marshall informed the British Chiefs
of Staff that if General Eisenhower as Supreme Commander
wished to launch the assault with only one army group of
mixed British and U.S. forces and under command of General
Montgomery as Commander of the 21st Army group he (General
Marshall) would raise no objection.1
The British, having
ascertained that General Eisenhower would in fact employ
General Montgomery as C-in-C Land Forces during the assault
phase, agreed to General Marshall's wording of the
OVERLORD command directive.2
-
The selection of General Eisenhower as Supreme
Allied Commander was immediately agreed to by all, when
the final decision was taken to execute OVERLORD. General
Eisenhower was officially appointed to the Supreme Command
of the Cross Channel Operation, 6 December 1943. On 7
December, the CCS agreed that General Eisenhower's new
title would be Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary
Force (SCAEF), and that the British General, Sir Henry
Maitland Wilson should relieve General Eisenhower as Supreme
Commander in the Mediterranean on January 1 1944 or
as soon thereafter as General Eisenhower considered wise.3
--186--
-
The following directive was issued to General
Eisenhower on 12 February 1944:
1
"1. You are hereby designated as Supreme
Allied Commander of the forces placed under
your orders for operations for liberation of
Europe from Germans. Your title will be Supreme
Commander Allied Expeditionary Force.
"2. Task. You will enter the continent
of Europe and, in conjunction with the other
United Nations, undertake operations aimed
at the heart of Germany and the destruction of
her armed forces. The date for entering the
Continent is the month of May 1944. After adequate
channel ports have been secured, exploitation
will be directed towards securing an area
that will facilitate both ground and air operations
against the enemy.
"3. Notwithstanding the target date above
you will be prepared at any time to take immediate
advantage of favorable circumstances, such
as withdrawal by the enemy on your front, to
effect a re-entry into the Continent with such
forces as you have available at the time;
2
a general plan for this operation when approved
will be furnished for your assistance.
"4. Command. You are responsible to the
Combined Chiefs of Staff and will exercise command
generally in accordance with the diagram
at Appendix (reproduced on page 189). Direct
communication with the United States and British
Chiefs of Staff is authorized in the interest
of facilitating your operations and for arranging
necessary logistic support.
--187--
"5. Logistics. In the United Kingdom the
responsibility for logistics organization, concentration,
movement, and supply of forces to meet
the requirements of your plan will rest with British
Service Ministries so far as United States Forces are
concerned, this responsibility will rest with the
United States War and Navy Departments. You will
be responsible for the coordination of logistical
arrangements on the Continent. You will also be
responsible for coordinating the requirements of
British and United States forces under your command.
"6. Coordination of operations of other Forces
and Agencies. In preparation for your assault on
enemy occupied Europe, Sea and Air Forces, agencies
of sabotage, subversion, and propaganda, acting under
a variety of authorities are now in action. You may
recommend any variation in these activities which
may seem to you desirable.
"7. Relationship to United Nations Forces in
other areas. Responsibility will rest with the
Combined Chiefs of Staff for supplying information
relating to operations of the Forces of the U.S.S.R.
for your guidance in timing your operations. It is
understood that the Soviet Forces will launch an
offensive at about the same time as OVERLORD with
the object of preventing the German forces from transferring
from the Eastern to the Western front. The
Allied Commander in Chief, Mediterranean Theater, will
conduct operations designed to assist your operation,
including the launching of an attack against the south
of France at about the same time as OVERLORD.1
The
scope and timing of his operations will be decided by
the Combined Chiefs of Staff. You will establish contact
with him and submit to the Combined Chiefs of
Staff your views and recommendations regarding operations
from the Mediterranean in support of your attack
from the United Kingdom. The Combined Chiefs of Staff
will place under your command the forces operating in
Southern France as soon as you are in a position to
assume such command. You will submit timely recommendations
compatible with this regard.
"8. Relationship with Allied Governments. - The reestablishment
of Civil Governments and Liberated Allied
Territories and the administration of enemy territories.
Further instructions will be issued to you on these subjects
at a later date."
--188--
Appendix
Chain of Command
--189--
-
General Eisenhower assumed command of
OVERLORD forces in England in January, 1944. The
outstanding command problems were the following:
-
There was no Naval Command problem as it had
been agreed from the first that all naval forces
would operate under the Allied Naval Commander in
Chief, (ANCXF), who in turn was under the command
of SCAEF;
-
He assigned Tactical Air Forces to CinC AEAF, in
accordance with his directive (CCS 304/12), and
later, when the CCS finally agreed that the
Strategic Air Forces would work under his direction,
he assigned them also to CinC AEAF;
--190--
-
He assigned the 1st U.S. Army, and
attached troops, to the British 21st
Army Group under General Montgomery,
on the understanding that "the CinC
21 Army Group will be responsible
for the Command of all ground forces
engaged in the operation, until such
time as the Supreme Commander allocates
an area of responsibility to the Commanding
General First (US) Army Group
.... The effective date for the allocation
of an area responsibility to
the First (US) Army Group will be when,
in the opinion of the Supreme Commander,
the number of Unites States troops landed
on the continent warrants their control
being exercised by the First (US)
Army Group Commander."
1
--191--
-
The system of command finally adopted for
OVERLORD Operation was grounded on two basic principles.
-
In the Chain of Command, service C's in C
were interposed between the Supreme Commander
and his task forces; but, except
in the case of the Air C in C, the service
commanders were not officers holding
some other basic appointment in their own
national service.1
-
The Supreme Commander and his direct subordinates
exercised operational command.
The normal channels and standard machinery
of each service of each nation provided
administrative and logistic support. These
normal authorities supplied the operational
commanders with fully organized forces and
provided all necessary support during the
battle.
--192--
PART II
DEVELOPMENT OF OVERLORD SYSTEM OF NAVAL COMMAND
A. Designation of Allied Naval Command-in-Chief (ANCXF)
-
The naval system of command for the cross-channel
operation had been developed within the broad framework
of doctrine of combined commands to meet specific problems of
the naval aspects of the operation. By November 1943 the
fundamentals of the OVERLORD Naval command were established
and thereafter such detailed modifications as were necessary
to meet the developing situation were effected logically and
easily. The Naval system of Command and Control under the
policy prescribed by CCS 75/3, consistently separated the
functions of operational command from those of logistic and
administrative command, control, and support. Under the
Supreme Commander, the Allied Naval Commander in Chief
exercised unrestricted operational command of all naval
forces - (ships, personnel, authorities, and shore establishments)
engaged in executing the Naval plan. On the other
hand, throughout the whole period of normal fleet organization,
under the control of the standard naval authorities of both
navies, remained responsible for (1) providing organized
forces to ANCXF, and (2) maintaining and supporting the forces
engaged.
-
Operational Command of Naval forces was vested in the
Allied Naval Commander-in-Chief, Expeditionary Force (ANCXF).
This command had its origins in the Combined Commanders
"Committee" which the British had established in 1941 and
1942. In 1942 Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay had been V.A.
Dover, one of the R.N. Home Commands. While still holding
that post, he was assigned extra duty as the Naval C-in-C
of the Combined Commanders. In this capacity he drew up the
plans and set up the Naval organization employed in the
North African invasion. He also developed the Naval part
of the ROUNDUP plan in his "Provisional Assessment of
Naval Implications of ROUNDUP, 1943". This was a concrete
statement of what the navy would be required to do, what it
would be required to provide, how the job could be done,
what commands would be required and the responsibilities which
each naval authority would be required to assume. This
"assessment" included:
-
calculation of the number of ships and craft
required to provide the assault lift;
-
the number of berths, anchorages, hards and
general naval accommodation required in
England to handle the number of ships involved;
--193--
-
the number of convoys which would be
likely to be required for the movement
of the assault follow-up and the build-up
forces;
-
the number of escort groups required for
the total number of convoys;
-
the number of swept channels which would
be required to pass the convoys;
-
the number of minesweepers required to sweep
the channels;
-
the scale of naval bombardment likely to be
necessary;
-
the number of bombarding ships required to
deliver the required bombardment;
-
the shipping tonnage required for the build-up,
and
-
such other naval problems - far shore,
maintenance, support and all the rest, as
were involved in the cross-channel operation.
-
The ROUNDUP operation was never definitely scheduled,
and no definite number of divisions assigned to it.
Admiral Ramsay's assessment made in 1942 could be no more
than a provisional estimate based on assumptions as to the
scale of army and air effort. But the assessment was
realistic, and gave a clear account of the naval tasks
involved, of the method for accomplishing them, and of the
resources required to do so.
-
Early in 1943, Admiral Ramsay was transferred to the
Mediterranean. There he drafted the Naval Plans for the
invasions of Sicily and Italy, and, under Admiral
Cunningham, commanded the R.N. forces engaged. On 5 May
1943 his place, as Naval C-in-C on the British Combined
Commanders "Committee", was taken by Admiral Sir Charles
Little, Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth. At the Quebec
conference in August, Admiral Little's appointment as
ANCXF (designate) was put on a combined basis when
Admiral King and the U.S. Chiefs of Staff agreed to his
selection, and to putting the U.S. Naval OVERLORD forces
under his command.
--194--
B. Relations of Royal Navy and U.S. Navy Organization with ANCXF
-
U.S. Naval forces assigned to execute OVERLORD would
serve under the operational command of a Royal Navy ANCXF.
The U.S. Army-Navy agreement by which the U.S. Army was to
"exercise planning and operational control, under the
principle of Unity of Command, over all U.S. Naval forces
assigned to the European Theater for participation with the
U.S. Army in operation against Western Europe"
1
had therefore to be rescinded. In October 1943,
Admiral King proposed,2
and General Marshall agreed to the cancellation of this
agreement.3
--195--
[ Page 196 consisted only of footnotes to page 195. ]
--196--
-
The Admiralty apparently considered that, in working
out the command relationships between the U.S. Navy and
the Royal Navy, not only the operational control of the
forces assigned to OVERLORD by the two navies, but also
their logistic support and administration should be assured
within the general framework of the R.N. Home Commands. The
selection initiated by the Admiralty of a C in C Home
Commander as ANCXF, was a major step in this direction. The
major function of the C in C Portsmouth was the command of,
and responsibility for, an important area command in the
standing organization of the British Navy. His assignment
also as OVERLORD Naval Commander was thus regarded as only
a temporary additional responsibility.
-
In an Admiralty publication on the subject of the status
of ANCXF, it was stated that:
"It is intended to organize the landing craft,
which are based in any one (R.N.Home) command
area, into a single Naval assault or follow-up
force. It is the present intention that naval
assault forces shall be based in the Portsmouth
Command, R.N. Assault Force J); Plymouth Command,
(U.S.N. Assault force O); and the Rosyth Command
(R.N. Assault Force S); whilst naval follow-up
forces will be based in the Nore Command (R.N.
Force L); and the Western Approaches Command
(U.S.N. Force B)1
- - - During the period
of their training the Allied Naval Commander-in-Chief
will assume general directions to both
British and U.S. Naval assault forces, and to
follow-up force Commanders, regarding the
administration and training of their forces. For
day to day administration and operational purposes,
the force commanders will be responsible to the
Commanders in Chief of the Home Command, within
which they are based.2
The Naval Commanders-in-Chief,
Home Commands, and the Naval Port Authorities
will . . . be the coordinating authority for
requirements of maintenance, refuelling . . .
etc."3
--197--
-
This publication further provided:
-
that the Home Commands would exercise administrative
control over the U.S. Assault forces;
-
that the Commander, U.S. Naval Forces Europe,
would assist the Home C's in C in the administration
of U.S. Naval Forces, and,
-
that during the actual operation ANCXF would
act under the joint control of Admiralty and
SCAEF.1
-
The basic concept of the Admiralty was thus clearly
expressed. The Admiralty would deliver the component parts
of an R.N. assault or follow-up forces to a C-in-C Home
Command. The U.S. Navy Department would likewise deliver
the component parts of the U.S.N. Force to a C-in-C, R.N.
Home Command. The Home Commands would assemble, organize,
and train the assault forces and manage their logistic and
administrative support, drawing on U.S. sources for the
resources necessary to support the U.S. elements. When
the forces were organized they would all be turned over to
the Portsmouth Home Command which would direct the operation.
--198--
[ An accidental duplication of page 198 ]
--199--
-
The U.S. Naval authorities, on the other hand, felt
that SCAEF and ANCXF should be given full and unqualified
operational control,
1
of Naval forces already organized
and prepared for the operation. At the same time, they
wished to preserve independent U.S.N. control of the
fundamentals of the U.S. Naval Fleet and logistic organization,
without which the U.S. Naval forces could not
operate with full efficiency. Mediterranean experience
had indicated the difficulties involved in assigning a
fleet commander with his fleet in toto to the command of
an Allied Naval C in C,
2
especially when the latter's
primary appointment was that of commander of a major
geographic sub-division in the basic and long term organization
in the Royal Navy.
--200--
-
With this situation in mind, CominCh took action in
September, 1943:
-
to avoid any merger of U.S. and R.N. forces
with the resultant dangers of dislocation of
U.S. Naval administration and logistic support
and of the diversion of U.S. Naval strength to
purposes for which it is not intended;
-
to shield the U.S. Naval establishment in
England from R.N. intervention in matters of
internal administration and logistics, and, in
relation to functions of the U.S. Naval mission and
area command; (ComNavEu) and, finally,
-
to preserve the U.S. Navy from the same type of
control by U.S. Army authorities.
--201--
C. Organization of the Twelfth U.S. Fleet and of Task Force 122
-
There had been continuing discussions between Cominch
and ComNavEu staffs since May 1942 as to the appropriate
chain of command for U.S. Naval forces that might later
be assigned to a cross-channel operation (envisaged as
ROUNDUP in 1942 and as OVERLORD in 1943). In order to provide
for the U.S. Naval participation in the OVERLORD
operations, provisionally approved at the Quebec (Quadrant)
Conference in August 1943, Cominch took three steps:
-
The Twelfth fleet, with Admiral Stark,
Commander U.S. Naval Forces in Europe as its
Commander, was established as an independent
administrative U.S. Naval Command. As such
it was to be free from control by the Admiralty,
by ETOUSA, by SCAEF, or other authorities in the
European Theater.1
--202--
-
A new amphibious force was organized under the
command of Rear-Admiral Hall, and this force
was assigned in toto to the Twelfth Fleet.1
It
was to include all amphibious vessels assigned
to OVERLORD, and a Landing Craft and Bases
Organization for their support and maintenance,
(non-amphibious naval forces required were
assigned directly to the Twelfth Fleet.2
--203--
-
Rear Admiral A.G. Kirk, USN with a qualified staff
was assigned to duty under ComTwelfthFleet to act
as Task Force Commander during the operation.
-
Commander Twelfth Fleet was to report for duty under
ANCXF. He was not to act on the staff of ANCXF or as deputy
ANCXF. Commander Twelfth Fleet was to assign command of the
U.S. Naval Forces, to be engaged in the OVERLORD operation,
to the U.S.N. Task Force Commander at the appropriate time.
Admiral Kirk and his Task Force, designated as Task Force
122, were to execute the orders of ANCXF but to do so as an
independent U.S.N. organization.1
Throughout the entire period
of preparation and training for the operation, Commander
Twelfth Fleet, employing U.S.N. methods in accordance with the
U.S.N. organizational system, was to provide logistic and
administrative support.2
--204--
[ Footnotes continued from previous page ]
--205--
-
The following arrangements were made to give effect to
this basic plan:
-
ComTWELFTHFleet, on 10 November 1943, designated
Rear-Admiral Kirk as Commander Task Force 122 and
directed him to report to COSSAC for duty under
ANCXF.1
Rear-Admiral Kirk so reported to COSSAC
on 15 November 1943, and to General Eisenhower as
SCAEF on 18 January 1944.2
-
ComTWELFTHFleet directed ComLanCrabEu and Com11thPhib
to report to CTF 122 for duty.3
--206--
D. Command Arrangements and Operation Plan, Task Force 122
-
Soon after his arrival in London, Admiral Kirk, as
CTF 122, worked out, in agreement with ComTWELFTHFleet, the
U.S.Naval operational plan for the pre-assault period and
explicitly outlined their divided responsibilities. CTF 122
and his own staff would "supervise and inspect basic training
(and) "prepare basic plans for future operations". The
Eleventh Amphibious Force of the Twelfth Fleet was:
-
to "prepare and train for amphibious operations";
-
to "maintain all elements of the Force in maximum
operational readiness", and,
-
to "provide for the reception, maintenance, and
repair of landing craft, and for accommodations
for personnel of this force ashore, by establishment,
operation, and administration, of Bases
under the command of Commander Landing Craft and
Bases......".1
-
When the scale of assault was increased from a three-divisional
basis to a five-divisional basis, the U.S. Navy
was required to provide two assault forces plus one follow-up
force instead of one of each. Rear-Admiral Kirk then
modified accordingly the CTF 122 plan. The new assault
force commander, Rear Admiral Moon, was put under the command
of the Commander Eleventh Amphibious Force, Twelfth Fleet, to
whom the additional ships and craft were also assigned.
--207--
Rear-Admiral Hall as ComllthPhib was directed to organize
the three forces, to assign ships and craft to them, to
arrange for the "marrying" of army formations to the
assault forces, to conduct the training of all forces, to
support and maintain all forces and to maintain them in
conditions of readiness. CTF 122 also assigned all the
many supporting elements, such as gun fire support craft,
beach battalions, escort groups, transports, bases, etc.,
to the Eleventh Amphibious Force. Rear-Admiral Hall was
to organize and prepare all of these raw elements so as
to deliver three fully organized forces into the hands of
CTF 122 on the eve of D-day.1
-
This system worked admirably. Commander Twelfth Fleet,
freed from the encumbrance of local army and R. N. interference,
was able to perform his four-fold task with speed
and effectiveness. The chief functions performed during this
period by ComNavEu, as Commander Twelfth Fleet were the
following:
-
Working through the headquarters organization of
the Twelfth Fleet, provision was made for the
accumulation of forces and logistic resources in
the United Kingdom and for the administration and
logistic support of these forces.
-
The Commander of Task Force 122 participated in the
preparation of ANCXF's plans to make sure that
these were realistically based on U.S.N. capabilities
and that U.S.N. preparations and organizations
were so arranged as to meet the requirements of the
ANCXF plans.
-
The Amphibious Force commander assembled, organized,
trained, and prepared, U.S. Naval forces for the
invasion.
-
The Commander Landing Craft and Bases provided direct
maintenance, logistic support, and administration of
these forces, utilizing the resources supplied in
bulk from Commander Twelfth Fleet in order to meet
the operational requirements of the amphibious force
commander.
-
The standard organization of the U.S. Navy thus went
about the business of preparing the forces for action and
of providing support for them during operations, while complete
operational command was assured SCAEF and ANCXF. Concurrently
with the establishment of this U.S. Naval Command organization
to separate effectively operational control from the administrative
and logistic aspects of command, a similar development
was taking place on the Royal Navy side.
--208--
E. Admiralty Modification of Royal Naval Command Organization:
Admiral Ramsay Designated ANCXF
-
The traditional policy of the Admiralty had always
been to designate as Naval Commander-in-Chief of any specific
operation the Royal Navy Commander in the area most closely
concerned with the operation. When ROUNDUP or SLEDGEHAMMER,
which would have been launched from the Dover area in England,
were under consideration, the Admiralty had designated the
Vice-Admiral commanding the Dover Home Command (Vice-Admiral
Ramsay) as Naval Commander-in-Chief. When TORCH, HUSKY, and
AVALANCHE, were being prepared and executed, the Admiralty
designated the R.N. Commander of the Mediterranean Station
(Admiral Cunningham) as Naval Commander-in-Chief. When
OVERLORD, which would be mounted and executed principally in
the Portsmouth area was being developed, the Admiralty
designated Commander-in-Chief Portsmouth as Allied Naval
Commander-in-Chief.
-
The Commander-in-Chief Portsmouth (Admiral Little) was
tentatively designated ANCXF on 5 May 1943,1
and occupied
that post when COSSAC drew up the OVERLORD Appreciation and
Outline Plan. He and his staff were charged with preparing
the Naval Plan. As the chief function of Commander-in-Chief
Portsmouth was to operate the Portsmouth Home Command, the
Admiralty had provided him with a special staff (the X staff)
and a special Chief of Staff (X), (Commodore Hughes-Hallet),
to develop the OVERLORD Naval Plan..
-
During the six months Commander-in-Chief Portsmouth
occupied the post of ANCXF designate, the only document in
the nature of a Naval Plan produced was a paper - "General
Instructions for the Conduct of Naval Assault Forces in Home
Waters (CICNAF).2
This document was notable in several respects:
--209--
-
It contained no operational plan and no
proposals for the organization of the Naval
Command of this operation.
-
It contained no definition of the tasks for
which the Naval forces would be responsible.
-
It contained no estimate of the naval resources
required for the naval part of the operation.
-
The document was made up chiefly of generalizations
relative to the best methods for operating
naval units or groups in those circumstances
which it was considered, might arise in the
course of a major amphibious operation.
-
The naval parts of the COSSAC plan were similarly
devoid of anything in the nature of a tangible
concrete operation plan or command organization.
-
In October the Admiralty relieved Admiral Little of
his duties an ANCXF and brought Admiral Ramsay back from
the Mediterranean to assume this Command.1
Admiral Ramsay's
new appointment was as ANCXF only. His only function was to
exercise operational command, under the Supreme Commander, of
the British, U.S., and Allied Naval Forces, assigned to the
NEPTUNE, or assault phase, of the OVERLORD operations.
--210--
Admiral Ramsay was appointed Allied Naval Commander-in-Chief
on the 25th October, 1943. "His first concern was to
modify the chain of command for the operation so that
ANCXF could exercise the necessary over-all control whilst
ensuring that full value was made of the existing organizations......"
1
In order to do this he drew up a statement
setting out the division of responsibilities between all
authorities in the operation.2
On the one side, he arranged
that responsibility for the provision and support of fully
organized and trained Assault and Task forces would be
assumed by "existing organizations", namely, Admiralty
Commanders-in-Chief, Home Commands, Commander, U.S. Naval
Forces, Europe, etc. On the other side, he took over direct
control of all aspects of operational command. These
arrangements, which are set out in detail in XFPM #1, were
approved by Admiralty and ComNavEu.3
--211--
-
The appointment of Admiral Ramsay as ANCXF thus marked
a significant development in the system of combined Naval
Command. For the Royal Navy, a well as for the U.S. Navy,
the functions of operational command were firmly separated
from those of logistic and administrative support. The
normal and fundamental authorities of the fleet organization
in both navies were therefore able to proceed with their
normal business of assembling, organizing, supporting and
maintaining the naval forces designated for the operation,
while operational command for the performance of a specific
task was vested in ANCXF. The normal authorities directed
their efforts to supplying naval resources. ANCXF devoted
his attention to the employment of those Naval resources in
the accomplishment of the Naval Mission assigned to the
OVERLORD operation. The establishment of Naval Command on
this firm basis may be dated at 25 October 1943 when Admiral
Ramsay assumed command as ANCXF,
1
and at 10 November when
Rear-Admiral Kirk reported as U.S. Naval Task Force Commander.2
--212--
PART III
NEPTUNE NAVAL COMMAND
A. Pre-NEPTUNE Phase (25 October 1943 - 27 May 1944)
-
After October 25, the naval organization for the
cross-channel operation passed through three stages:
Pre-NEPTUNE, NEPTUNE, and Post-NEPTUNE. In the pre-NEPTUNE
stage the normal Naval authorities of both the
U.S. Navy and the Royal Navy brought together, maintained,
and organized the Naval Forces to be employed in the
operation. In the operational stage, SCAEF, employing ANCXF
as his Naval Commander, assumed operational control of all
forces of both navies with which he executed NEPTUNE. In
this phase, they executed his orders, while the normal
authorities stood by to provide support and maintenance of
the forces engaged. When the NEPTUNE phase ended, later stages
of operation OVERLORD continued to require Naval support. During
this phase the normal authorities resumed command, but
assigned naval forces to the control of ANCXF, as necessary,
to meet the requirements of the Supreme Commander.
-
Although, in the pre-NEPTUNE phase, responsibility for
developing organized naval forces rested with the "normal
authorities", it was essential that these forces should be
organized, trained, and prepared, in conformity with the
operational plan which they were to execute. Conversely,
the plan had to be so devised as to exploit fully the
capabilities of the forces engaged, and to avoid requiring
them to perform duties for which they were not suitably
qualified. In order to assure the required coordination of
effort, ANCXF proposed, while the Admiralty and ComTWELFTHFleet
approved, the following division of responsibilities among the
major authorities.1
-
During the period of formation and operational
training of the assault forces, ANCXF would issue
general directions concerning the coordination of
planning, and of the training of naval forces. In
the case of British forces these were to be issued
via the normal chain of command (viz. via the C's-in-C
Home Commands). In the case of U.S. forces, they
were to be issued via CTF122.
--213--
-
Administrative instructions were to be issued to
the British and U.S. Forces separately by the
Allied Naval Commander-In-Chief and by Commander
Task Force 122.
-
For day-to-day administration and operational
purposes, the British Assault and Follow-up Force
Commanders were responsible to the Commander-in-Chief
of the Home Command, within which they were
based. For the same purposes the U.S. Assault
and Follow-up Force Commanders were required to
conform to the local regulations of the Home Command
within which they were based, but were responsible
to normal U.S. Naval authorities, or as laid down by
Commander Task Force 122.
-
In addition to his executive function, in command of
the Allied Naval Forces allotted to the operation,
ANCXF was the naval advisor and the naval planning
authority of the Supreme Commander.
-
ANCXF was to issue the naval outline plan, and at a
later date, his operation orders in sufficient time
to enable Commander Western Task Force (CTF 122),
Naval Commander Eastern Task Force and the Naval
Assault and Follow-up Force Commanders, to make
their detailed plans in collaboration with the
appropriate authorities in the other services.
-
ANCXF was to make such adjustments, as might be
required, between the strengths of the various
naval assault forces and follow-up forces, to give
effect to the NEPTUNE plan.
-
The Naval Task Force Commanders were to be responsible,
for the coordination of the training and organization
of their forces and for assuring that they were
prepared to execute the naval plan.
-
The Naval Assault and Follow-up Force Commanders were
responsible for the detailed training and organization
of their forces.
--214--
-
In the production of plans and operation orders, the
following division of responsibility between the Allied
Naval Commander-in-Chief, the Task Force Commanders, the
Naval Commanders-in-Chief, Home Commands, and the Naval
Assault and Follow-up Force Commanders were laid down.1
-
An outline plan for the operation as a whole
(the COSSAC Plan) had been issued under the
authority of the Supreme Commander.
-
A Joint Plan was to be issued, under the authority
of the Allied Naval Commander-in-Chief, the
Commander-in-Chief, 21st Amy Group, and the Air
Commander-in-Chief, Allied Expeditionary Air Force
(NJC 1004).
-
A naval outline plan was to be issued to the Naval
Task Force Commanders by the Allied Naval Commander-in-Chief,
after consultation with the Army and Air
Commanders-in-Chief.
-
A Task Force naval outline plan was then to be prepared
by the Naval Task Force Commanders, in
collaboration with the appropriate Army and Air
Commanders, to give effect to the "combined" plan for
the conduct of their operations.
-
This naval outline plan was to take account of the
detailed requirements of the Assault Force Commanders.
The Task Force naval outline plan was to be submitted
to the Allied Naval Commander-In-Chief for approval.
He was to give it full effect in his naval operation
orders in accordance with the combined plan. The
Task Force Naval Outline plan was to be drawn up, in
consultation with the Naval Commanders-in-Chief,
Home Ports, insofar as local conditions were involved.
-
The Allied Naval Commander-in-Chief was to issue Naval
Operation Orders to give effect to the Task Force
Naval Outline Plan as coordinated and integrated by
him. He was also to consult with the Naval Commanders-in-Chief,
Home Commands, insofar as operations within
their commands were involved.
--215--
-
Task Force, Assault Force, and Follow-Up Force
Commanders were also to issue Force Naval Operation
Orders which would conform to the movements directed
in the Naval operation orders of the Allied Naval
Commander-in-Chief and carry out those required
by the combined plans for the assaults, as agreed
with the appropriate Army and Air Force authorities.
These orders were to be drawn up in collaboration
with the Naval Commanders-in-Chief, Home Commands,
insofar as movements within their commands were
involved.
--216--
B. NEPTUNE Phase (May 27 - 10 July 1944)
-
During the Operation, ANCXF exercised, under the
Supreme Commander, operational command of all naval forces
engaged except those providing distant cover (viz.
operating outside of the English channel). Under operational
command of ANCXF were:
-
The Naval Task Force Commanders who exercised
'general' operational control of their forces.
-
The Naval Assault and Follow-up Force Commanders
who exercised 'detailed' operational control of
their forces under the appropriate Task Force
Commanders.
-
The C's-in-C, Home Commands (to the extent that they
had operational functions to perform), who were
required by Admiralty "to give immediate effect to
the requirements of the Allied Naval Commander-in-Chief,
as set out in his plan and operation orders
and as communicated by him at the time".1
--217--
-
The principal operational functions of the C's-in-C,
Home Commands, with respect to which they came under the
command of ANCXF were:
-
Management of the naval side of the Build-up outside
the "assault area" including movements and maintenance
of ships and the control of escorts; and,
-
the operation of patrols and other measures for the
defense of waters outside the "Assault area".
-
In the normal R.N. organization the C's-in-C, Home
Commands, were responsible for designated off-shore areas.
They normally exercised command over all naval vessels operating
in these waters, except those functioning as part of
an organized fleet or force temporarily operating within
these limits. For operation NEPTUNE, Admiralty on the
recommendation of Admiral Ramsay, directed that this arrangement
should remain in force with three qualifications:
-
In exercising their Command over Channel waters,
the C's-in-C Home Commands, during the progress
of the operation, would be subject to the command
of ANCXF.
-
The Waters of the Bay of the Seine, South of 49° 40 N,
would be withdrawn from the Portsmouth Command, and
placed under the direct control of ANCXF who would
delegate responsibility for sections of this area
to the Task Force Commanders. They, in turn, would
delegate responsibility for sub-segments to the
Assault Force Commanders.
-
Task Force, Assault Force, and other NEPTUNE seagoing
authorities were directly responsible for
their (organized) forces under ANCXF while in Home
Command Waters.
-
The chain of Naval operational command may therefore be
diagramed as follows:
--218--
--219--
C. Post NEPTUNE Phase1 (10 July 1944 - 14 July 1945)
-
The broad policy for command changed after the assault
phase was completed, provided for as rapid as possible a
return to the "normal" Naval Command Organization of both
navies, with such modifications as might be required:
-
to operate naval activities on the continent of Europe; and,
-
to give SCAEF the control required over naval
"lift" and merchant forces to assure that they
would serve his requirements. In order to
achieve this result, the following arrangements
were envisaged:
-
Naval parties, capable of operating the
beaches, artificial harbors and captured
ports, were organized in advance of the
operation; during the assault phase, they
were established ashore, under the appropriate
task and assault force commanders.
-
In addition, Shore Authorities to assume
command on the Far Shore were established.
Those authorities were called Flag Officer
West (FOWEST), and Flag Officer British
Assault Area (FOBAA).
-
At an appropriate time the Assault Force
Commanders were to withdraw, turning over
command of their areas to FOBAA or FOWEST.
-
Still later the Task Force Commanders were
to withdraw turning over command of their
areas to FOBAA or FOWEST.
-
As vessels completed their assault duties
they were to be transferred to other commands
as follows:
-
Ferry craft, minesweepers, area screen
vessels, and others required in the
assault area were to be held under command
of the Assault and Task Force commanders
and later turned over to FOBAA and FOWEST:
--220--
-
Vessels required for the Build-up were
to be returned to the appropriate Home
Commands, in the case of British vessels,
and to the 11th Amphibious Force in the
case of U.S. vessels.
-
Vessels required for the defense of the
channel were to be turned over to the
appropriate Home Commands.
-
A proportion of the vessels required for
a subsequent one-divisional assault were
retained by an Assault Force Commander.
-
Other vessels were to be released from
OVERLORD.
-
In the post assault phase ANCXF continued to act:
-
As Naval Advisor to SCAEF.
-
In operational command of Naval Forces on
the continent of Europe and its waters.
-
With authority to require the C's-in-C,
Home Commands, and other Naval authorities,
to operate Naval Overlord forces to his
requirements.
--221--
D. Chronological Summary of Naval Command Developments - OVERLORD Operation
-
Chronologically the various steps in the evolution of
the OVERLORD Naval Command were as follows:
-
25 October 1943: Admiral Ramsay assumed command
as ANCXF., RN. Commanders Force G, S, and L, were
already "attached".1
-
10 November 1943: Admiral Stark assigned the llth
Amphibious Force and Landing Craft and Bases to
CTF 122, who reported for duty under ANCXF.2
-
27 November 1943: ANCXF issued XFPM No.1, by which
command of NEPTUNE Naval Forces was to be executed
by "normal" authorities during the pre-assault
period, except that ANCXF reserved authority to
issue general directives required to give effect to
the combined plan.3
-
11 December 1943: CTF 122 issued his Operation Plan
1-43 by which "direct" command of U.S. Naval
Amphibious Forces was to be exercised by Com11thPhib
who was to prepare, organize, and train, the U.S.
Naval Forces.4
-
Mid-February 1944: Force G, the new British Assault
Force, was formed in the Portland area of the
Portsmouth Home Command.5
Naval Commander Eastern
Task Force was established.6
The Home Commands
continued to be responsible for assembly, administration,
and support, while ANCXF supervised only broad
policy.7
--222--
-
6 March 1944: Force U was established.1
NC, Force U, was assigned to 11th Phib. Com11thPhib
was made responsible for formation, preparation,
training, etc. of all three U.S. Naval Assault
Forces.2
-
1 April 1944: Com12thFleet placed all U.S. Naval
Forces, allotted to operation OVERLORD, under
operational command of ANCXF.3
Neither ANCXF nor CTF 122 altered the pre-NEPTUNE command
arrangements, which provided that Com11thPhib, in
direct concert with Com12thFleet, was responsible
for preparing, organizing, training, maintaining,
and managing, the U.S. Naval Forces.
-
2 May 1944: For the purpose of a full-scale
exercise (FABIUS), the assault chain of command
was put into effect:
-
ANCXF assumed operational control of the
Channel, the C's-in-C, Home Commands, and
the Naval Task Force Commanders, and,
-
NCWTF (CTF 122) assumed direct command of
U.S. Naval Forces taking part.4
This exercise
ended on 6 May, and command reverted to the
preceding arrangement.5
-
25 May 1944: ANCXF ordered NEPTUNE executed.6
-
27 May 1944: NCWTF (CTF 122) ordered WTF to
execute his operation Plan 2-44, thus revoking
the pre-assault command structure and putting into
force the assault chain of command in the Western
Task Force.7
--223--
-
1 June 1944 (1200): ANCXF assumed command in the
English Channel over the Eastern and Western Task
Forces, as well as over the Home C's-in-C, in
accordance with the agreed operational chain of
command.1
-
24 to 30 June 1944: The assault chain of Command in
the Eastern Task Force, was replaced by the post-NEPTUNE
chain of command:
-
FOBAA established headquarters in British
Assault area preparatory to taking over
command on 24 June 1944.2
-
NC Force J withdrew on 24 June 1944, FOBAA
assuming command of this sector.3
-
NC Force G withdrew from assault area at
1000 27 June 1944, FOBAA assuming command
of G-sector.4
-
NC Force S withdrew at 1200 on 30 June 1944,
command of the sector being assumed by
FOBAA.5
-
NCETF withdrew at 1200 on 30 June 1944 and
command of the whole ETF area was assumed by
FOBAA.6
-
24 June to 10 July 1944: The assault chain of
command in the Western Task Force was replaced
by the post-NEPTUNE chain of command.
-
Admiral Moon was relieved as NC Force U
(CTF 125) by Admiral Wilkes on 24 June 1944.7
--224--
-
Admiral Wilkes assumed additional duties as
FOWEST at 1200 on 27 June 1944.1
-
Admiral Hall withdrew at 1200 on 27 June 1944.
Command of his sector being assumed by
Admiral Wilkes (FOWEST and CTF 125) while
titles of NC Force O (CTF 124) and NC Force U
(CTF 125) lapsed.
-
Admiral Hall then resumed his commands as
CTF 123 and Com11thPhib.2
-
NCWTF, Admiral Kirk, withdrew at 1200 3 July
1944, being relieved by Admiral Wilkes,
FOWEST.3
-
CTF 122 was dissolved and command of U.S.N.
OVERLORD Forces reverted to Com12thFleet as
of 0001, 10 July 1944.
-
Com12th Fleet assigned control of naval forces
on the French coast as set out in his 081724 of
July 1944.
-
26 July 1944: ANCXF relinquished Naval control of the
Channel to the normal C-in-C, Home Commands, except
for the assault area, which was expanded to include
Cherbourg.4
-
21 September 1944: ANCXF relinquished control of the
assault area, and the naval command in this area then
reverted to the normal control of C-in-C Portsmouth.5
--225--
PART IV
INTEGRATED COMMAND OF ALLIED FORCES
A. Chain of Integrated Command
-
(See next page)
--226--
-
The structure for integrated operational command may be diagrammed as
follows:1
--227--
B. Division of Responsibilities for Planning
-
The following matters were to be the concern of the Allied Naval Command-in-Chief in concert
with 21 Army Group, and were to be covered in his operation
orders1:
-
All matters of major naval policy.
-
Naval advice to Supreme Commander, including advice on the date and time of the assault.
-
Allocation of all naval forces.
-
Convoy programs and routing of assault convoys up to assault area. (Coordination of convoys
with towing schedule for MULBERRY.)
-
Coordination of communication arrangements.
-
Program of initial movements.
-
Coordination of administrative and fuelling, repair, maintenance, and salvage arrangements for
the operation as a whole.
-
Stating requirements for covering forces.
-
Coordination of air reconnaissance, anti-submarine air requirements and fighter protection.
-
The general organization of the captured coast, the allocation of major items of necessary
equipment, and the coordination of methods of unloading, etc..
-
General control of the Build-up to meet the requirements of the Army.
-
The following matters were to be the responsibility of the Task Force Commanders, the Assault
and Follow-up Force Commanders, and the Senior Officers Assault Groups, respectively, in
consultation with their respective Army, Corps, Divisional and Brigade Commanders:
-
Detailed planning of the assaults.
--228--
-
The loading and sailing of their forces to give effect to the Joint Plan.
-
The priority of loading of naval stores and equipment in their convoys.
-
Detailed arrangements for minesweeping, anti-submarine and anti-aircraft protection, air raid
warnings, etc., off the enemy coast.
-
Detailed arrangements for bombardment.
-
Detailed arrangements for the subsequent unloading of craft and ships during the Build-up.
-
The organization of the captured coast in their areas, including detailed arrangements for
fuelling, repair, maintenance, and salvage, on and off the beaches.
-
Detailed communication arrangements.
-
The sailing of all craft and shipping from the assault area to the United Kingdom including
provision of escorts.
--229--
C. Division of Responsibility Between Army and Navy
-
During the operation, and until the Army were firmly established ashore, the command of each
Naval Task and Assault Force, and of the Army formations embarked, was to be executed by the
appropriate Naval Commanders.1
-
In the Western (U.S.) Task Force division of responsibilities between the Army and the Navy
before and during the assault phase was governed by a Joint Agreement between the Commanding
General, U.S. First Army (Lieut.General O.N. Bradley) and the Commander Task Force 122
(Rear-Admiral A.G. Kirk)2.
This defined a detailed division of responsibilities, following generally the
broad policies of U.S. Joint Army-Navy Doctrine for amphibious
operations.3
Some of the main points were:
-
For training, the Navy was to be responsible for detailed training of Naval Personnel and for
coordination of training of Joint forces afloat, in amphibious exercises and dress rehearsals; while the
Army was responsible for training its own personnel, except for joint amphibious training coordinated
by the Navy.
-
On the near Shore, movement of personnel, vehicles, and supplies to ports and points of
embarkation, as required by the landing force commander, was to be the responsibility of the S.O.S.
ETOUSA. Movement of vessels to and from berths, quays, or hards, and subsequently was to be the
responsibility of the Navy.
-
On the Far Shore, movement of vessels to and from beaches or berths was to be controlled by the
Navy, while discharge and priorities was to be controlled by the Army.
--230--
-
Control of the beaches was to be vested in the Army (Engineer Special Brigade) which was to
exercise control of the movement of vessels, beaching or retracting or discharging, through Naval
Beach parties supplied particularly for that purpose.
-
Defense of beaches and ports was the responsibility of the Army.
-
Cross-Channel transit of beach structures (MULBERRIES, etc.) was under control of the Navy;
installations below high water mark was the responsibility of the Navy; installations above high water
mark was the responsibility of the Army.
-
Breeching and removal of submerged beach obstacles was the responsibility of the Navy, of
"dry" obstacles, the responsibility of the Army, but mutual assistance in both jobs was to be rendered.
-
The respective responsibilities of the U.S. Army and Navy, in the Post Assault phase for the
operation of ports, was governed by an agreement between ComNavEu and the C.G. ETOUSA
(Deputy).1
--231--
D. Division of Responsibility for the Build-Up
-
Control of the Build-up was governed by the Initial Joint Plan of the three C's-in-C, issued in
February 1944, under the authority of the Supreme
Commander.1
-
Overall control was to be exercised by an inter-service body called BUCO (Build-up Control
Organization) which represented the three Joint C's-in-C.
-
Control of military movements was to be exercised by the Army MOVCO.
-
Control of Build-up shipping was to be exercised by the British Home C's-in-C, operating through
TURCO's (Turn Round Control Organization), which, in turn, executed the broad policy
directives of BUCO.
--232--
Table of Contents
Previous Chapter (2) **
Next Chapter (4)
Footnotes:
p.172 #1
See FTP 155 of 1935 entitled Joint Action of the Army and
Navy. Among other things it was provided that in Amphibious
Operations the Naval Commander would exercise command
while the army was embarked and until the army was firmly
established ashore.
p.172 #2
COMINCH Serial 00447 of 2 June 1942, FF1/A16-1. This was
a joint letter signed by COMINCH and COS USA.
p.172 #3
WD 1120 of 8 June 1942. This is the directive establishing
ETOUSA. See also WD 1226 of 11 June 1942.
p.173 #1
In 1942 CinC land forces was Sir Bernard Paget, whose
basic job was CinC Home Forces. The Air CinC was Sir Sholto
Douglas who was then Commander of the R.A.F. Fighter Command.
The Chief of Combined Operations was Lord Louis Mountbatten.
These three devised the 1941 version of the Cross Channel
plan. Admiral Sir Betram Ramsay as Naval CinC joined the
Combined Commanders early in 1942. Admiral Ramsay's basic
job was Vice Admiral Commanding Dover Home Command. Admiral
Ramsay was selected because at that time it was thought that
the cross channel operation would be mounted from Dover and
would assault the Pas de Calais. The idea that the Home CinC
in whose area the operation would occur was the most suitable
person to command the naval operations was carried forward in
Admiralty's designation of Admiral Little CinC Portsmouth
for ANCXF for OVERLORD -- which would be mounted principally
from the Portsmouth area and executed in waters for which
Portsmouth was responsible.
p.173 #2
The Chain of Command was as follows:
See General Eisenhower's report to the JCS 18th Meeting of
4 June. Admiral Ramsay who later became OVERLORD Naval CinC
was at the time the Naval CinC of the Combined Commanders
Organization.
p.174 #1
CCS (42) 112th Meeting of 9 April 1942; CCS (42) 118th
Meeting of 14 April 1942.
p.174 #2
Their proposal was as follows:
See CCS 75 of 5 June 1942 and General Eisenhower 's report to
18th Meeting of 4 June 1942.
p.175 #1
It will be seen in due course that this system, occasionally
modified as to details was in fact employed in every
invasion - North Africa, Sicily, Italy, and Normandy.
See CCS 33rd Meeting of 25 July 1942; CCS 103 of 25 August
1943; CCS 103/3 of 8 October 1943.
p.175 #2
See CCS 33rd Meeting of 25 July 1942. The chain of command
agreed on was:
p.175 #3
ETOUSA was established on 8 June 1942 (see WD 1120 of 8 June
1942) D.D. Eisenhower was appointed CG by order of the President
(see letter ETOUSA AG 323.362-G of 2 July 1942). For
operational purposes the USN in the European Theater was put
under command of CG ETOUSA (see WD 1120 of 8 June 1942 and
WD 1226 of 11 June 1942).
p.175 #4
For directive to SAC see CCS 103/2 of 27 August 1942, and
CCS 36th Meeting of 27 August 1942. The President and the
Prime Minister decided on an American SAC because of the
political situation in North Africa which was thought to be
anti-British and pro-American (see CCS 33rd Meeting of 25
July 1942.)
p.176 #1
Admiral Ramsay, who was later OVERLORD Naval CinC, was, in
1942, the naval CinC in the Combined Commanders organization.
Before TORCH was decided upon he drew up the Naval SLEDGEHAMMER
and ROUNDUP plan. Then he drew up the Naval TORCH
Plan and directed basic preparations. Admiral Cunningham,
however, preferred to command the operation himself. Therefore,
TORCH plans and preparations developed by Admiral
Ramsay remained in London as a part of the residue of the
Combined Commanders organization. In this capacity he drew
up "Provisional assessment of Naval Implications of ROUNDUP
in 1943", which formed the basis on which all subsequent
logistic and administrative preparations for OVERLORD were
made. In January 1943 he was called to the Mediterranean
charged with responsibility for the naval side of the Sicilian
and Italian invasions.
p.176 #2
The system proposed by General Marshall, which was fully
concurred in by Admiral King and Admiral Leahy, may be diagrammed
as follows:
CCS |
SAC |
SAC Staff British and U.S. Officers of all services. |
U.S. Task Force Army-Navy-Air |
Other Task Forces |
Other Task Forces |
British Task Force Army-Navy-Air |
See CCS 39th Meeting of 4 September 1942; CPS 44/1 of 7 Oct.
1942.
p.177 #1
U.S. British Agreement on Combined Command Structure:
CCS Paper 75/3 of 24 October 1942.
p.179 #1
See CCS 75/3 of 24 October 1942; CCS 67th meeting of 22 January
1943. CCS 161/1 of 21 January 1943; CCS 67th meeting
of 27 January 1943; CCS 171/2/D of 23 January 1943; CCS 304/12
of 12th February 1944; SHAEF (44) 22 of 10 March 1944.
p.179 #2
CCS 75/3 of 24 October 1943 and CCS 67th meeting of 22 January
1943.
p.180 #1
Admiral Cooke's paper entitled "Memo for Admiral King", subject
"Naval Command Set Up in U.K. for Cross Channel Operations",
dated 7 October 1943.
p.181 #1
-
That SAC would be British see CCS 170/2 of 23 January
1943, para 4.
-
That OVERLORD would have 3 service C's in C see CCS 169
of 22 January 1943, para 7; and CCS 67th meeting of 22
January 1943.
-
The command agreed to for OVERLORD was to be similar to
that "just agreed to for operations in the Mediterranean".
These put the task forces under the service C's in C.
p.182 #1
See COSSAC plan Part I Paragraphs 40 and 41.
p.182 #2
JCS 105th meeting of 16 August 1943; JPS 263/D of 3 September
1943; JPS 263/1 of 11 September 1943.
p.182 #3
JCS 105th meeting of 16 August 1943.
p.182 #4
CCS 113th meeting of 20th August 1943.
p.183 #1
CCS 113th meeting of 20 August 1943.
p.183 #2
Quadrant and Citadel meeting of 23 August 1943, and CCS
319/5 of 24 August 1943.
p.183 #3
JCS 567 of 5 November '43 entitled Memorandum by the Chief
of Staff, U.S. Army, and CCS 408 of 25 November '43. The
chain of command suggested was:
OVER-ALL SAC |
SAC Med. |
SAC Strategic Air Forces |
SAC Overlord |
---|
p.183 #4
CCS 126th meeting of 5 November '43; CCS 408 of 25th November
'43; General Marsha1l also believed that this arrangement
would deter the British in what he considered their unilateral
Eastern Mediterranean policy. (JCS 122 and meeting 9 Nov. '43.)
p.184 #1
CCS 408/1 of 26 November 1943.
p.184 #2
CCS 304/2 of 12 October 1943.
p.184 #3
JPS 263/1 of 11 September 1943; CCS 124th meeting of 22
October 1943; CCS 126th meeting of 5 November 1943 CCS
304/6 of 29 October 1943.
p.184 #4
JCS 601/1 of 13 November 1943; CCS 400 of 10 November 1943.
p.185 #1
CCS 520 of 17 March '44; CCS 520/1 of 24 March '44; CCS 520/2
of 26 March '44; CM & N. 9791.
p.185 #2
ANCXF report Vol. 1 Appx. 1. Paragraph 27.
p.185 #3
ANCXF report Vol. 1 Appx. 1. Paragraph 9.
p.185 #4
ETOUSA letter COSSAC of 4 September 1943.
p.185 #5
JCS 105th meeting of 16 August 1943; JPS 263/D of 3 September
1943; JPS 263/1 of 11 September 1943.
p.186 #1
CCS 304/9 of 27 January 1944; CCS 304/12 of 12 February
1944; CCS 144th meeting of 4 February 1944.
p.186 #2
See SHAEF 44(22) of 10 March 1944.
p.186 #3
A-02785 of 6 December 1943; CCS 138th meeting of 7 December
1943.
p.187 #1
CCS 304/12 of 12 February 1944.
p.187 #2
This was Operation RANKIN. (See Chapter II, section 3).
p.188 #1
This was operation ANVIL, later known as DRAGOON (see Chapter
II, Section 7).
p.191 #1
SHAEF (44) 22 of 10 March 1944. The chain of operational
command for the assault phase was thus:
p.192 #1
It will be seen later on that this limitation was generally
employed on lower echelons. For example, operational
command of U.S. Naval Forces was vested in a Task Force
Commander and not in ComNavEu or Com12th Fleet which
functioned as one of the regional or Fleet commands in the
basic organization of U.S. Naval Forces. NCETF and all
but one of the assault force commanders likewise had no
other function than their part in the operation.
p.195 #1
WD 1120 of 8 June 1942; WD 1226 of 11 June 1942; Cominch
Serial 00447 of 2 June 1942.
p.195 #2
Cominch serial 001798 of 30 August 1943;
p.195 #3
Cominch serial 002346 of 29 October 1943; Agwar R-5111 of
29 October 1943, Par. 4. As no operation in Western Europe
had been executed prior to October 1943, the method of
putting the entire Naval organization in the theater,
including the senior Naval authority, wholly under the
operational command of the Army was not put to the test
of experience. In September 1943, however, the Commanding
General, ETOUSA, General Devers, proposed that the U.S.
Forces, Army, Navy, and Air, should conduct their part
of OVERLORD totally independently of the British. The
Supreme Commander would thus have had under his command
two distinct forces, one wholly British employing whatever
command system the British chose to employ, the other
wholly American under the command of Commanding General,
ETOUSA. As U.S. Naval Forces in Europe were still to be
under the operational command of C.G. ETOUSA in any cross-channel
operations or other operational plans, COMNAVEU
declined to enter into the discussion evoked by General
Devers plan. U.S. Naval opinion was nevertheless unanimous
that this plan would introduce many naval difficulties:
-
No matter who commanded the operation, the U.S.
Navy would be required to utilize R.N. facilities
to a considerable degree for maintenance, harboring,
berthing, sailing, communications, and similar
facilities.
-
The intended assault area was so small and
the convoy routes so congested that an overall
Naval command would be required to
coordinate the movements and activities of
the many thousands of ships and craft.
-
The Royal Navy was committed to provide both
British and U.S. sectors with covering
forces, minesweeping forces and a substantial
part of the screening, escorting and
bombarding forces.
-
The ETOUSA plan would make little use of the
U.S. Naval Craft and Bases organization which
had been established and which would be
essential for the support and maintenance of
the U.S. Naval Forces engaged in NEPTUNE.
-
Non-Naval difficulties with the ETOUSA plan,
mentioned by COSSAC, were:
-
difficulty of producing an integrated
air effort;
-
difficulty of producing an integrated
cover plan;
-
difficulty of producing an integrated
movement or administrative plan. (See
ETOUSA letter to COSSAC of 4 September
1943, and accompanying correspondence
in ANCXF file on COSSAC Command
arrangements.)
General Marshall had suggested in
October 1943 that the two armies should
operate distinct forces, while the two
Navies, the two strategical air forces,
and the two tactical air forces would
each be placed under a single command
to assure transport and as support for
the two separate armies.
S A C |
Allied Navies | U.S. Army | British Army |
Allied Strategic Air Forces | Allied Tactical Air Forces |
(See CCS 304/6 of 29 Oct 1943.)
p.197 #1
Admiralty M.053859/43, Para. II
p.197 #2
Ibid., Para. 1.
p.197 #3
Ibid., Para.10.
p.198 #1
Ibid., diagram 2.
p.199 #1
Ibid., Paragraph 10.
p.199 #2
Ibid., diagram 2.
p.200 #1
CominCh despatch 102212 of February 1944 defined operational
control as follows: "British Admiralty and Air Ministry
and CominCh have agreed upon following definition of operational
control as to Forces of the services concerned.
'Operational control comprises those functions of command
involving composition of task forces or groups or units,
assignment of tasks, designation of objectives and coordination
necessary to accomplish the mission. It shall always
be exercised where possible by making use of normal organization
units assigned, through the responsible Commanders.
It does not include such matters as administration, discipline,
internal organization and training of units.
U.S. Units assigned to the operational control of a British
Commander or vice versa operating without a combined staff
shall normally be assigned a mission which sets forth the
tasks for which the unit is assigned. It is recognized
that the operational authority may in emergency or unusual
situations employ assigned units on any task that he considers
essential to effective execution of his operational
responsibility.'"
p.200 #2
When Admiral Hewitt went to the Mediterranean for operation
HUSKY he was responsible for all activities of the U.S.
Navy in that area. He was given operational command and
was also made responsible for the administration and logistic
support of all U.S. Naval forces in Northwest African
Waters. He was ordered to report to the Supreme Commander
for duty under the Allied Naval Commander-in-Chief, Admiral
Cunningham, R.N., Admiral Cunningham tended to merge U.S.
and British Naval Forces in the Mediterranean under his
own command and to employ Admiral Hewitt as deputy, that
is to say, as a staff officer on Admiral Cunningham's
staff. In this way the internal affairs of the U.S.
Navy in such matters an administration, logistics, force
organization, disposition and employment of units, might
be complicated by R.N. intervention in non-operational
U.S.N. affairs. (see CominCh serial 001798 of 30 August
1943, and Admiral Cook's paper, entitled "Memorandum
for Admiral King" subject "Naval command set up in U.K.
for cross-Channel Operations", dated 7 October 1943.)
p.202 #1
Cominch letter to ComNavEu, serial 001915 of 9 September
1943 is quoted below:
"1. The Naval Forces assigned your command are being
redesignated as the Twelfth Fleet - the designation as
Task Force 112 as directed in CominCh despatch 111312
of August 1943, to be simultaneously discontinued.
2. The forces engaged in training for and participating
in the cross-channel operations will be formed into a
Task Force of the Twelfth. This Task Force will operate
under the command of the Supreme Commander for these
operations (to be designated later).
3. A Commander to command this Task Force, with
appropriate staff, will be directed to report to you
for further assignment to this duty. Final provisions
for the overall command set-up for the cross-channel
operations have not, as yet, been completed, but it is
anticipated that the Commander, U.S. Naval Task Force
(for cross-channel operations) will be under the
immediate command of the British Naval Commander-in-Chief
for these operations.
4. The Commander, U.S. Naval Forces, Europe, will provide
the general administrative and logistic support for this
operating Task Force. Logistic support will be accomplished
in accordance with current logistic directives."
p.203 #1
Cominch despatch 111902 of 12 August 1943; Cominch
serial 03683 of 24th October; BuPers despatch 281439
October 1943.
p.203 #2
All U.S. Naval OVERLORD amphibious forces were assigned
to the Eleventh Amphibious Force. These included:
-
the ships and vessels concerned and,
-
the Landing Craft and Bases organization, whose
main duty, once the sea-going forces arrived, was
to provide for their support and maintenance. The
whole Eleventh Amphibious Force was assigned in
toto to the Twelfth Fleet. The command structure
of the basic fleet organization of the U.S. Naval Forces
in Europe then became the following:
CominCh
Com TWELFTH Fleet
Commander Eleventh Amphibious Force
(1) Commander Landing Craft and Bases.
(2) Forces.
(3) Bases.
|
Cominch serial 03800 of 4 November 1943; CominCh serial
04350 of 24 December 1943; CominCh serial 0400, of 1 Feb 1944;
Cominch serial 01200 of 12 April 1944; Cominch serial 02200
of 18 June 1942.
p.204 #1
CominCh letter to Com12thFleet, serial 002346 of 29 Oct.
1943 is quoted in part below:
"(1) - - - - effective upon the date of reporting of
Rear Admiral A.G. Kirk, you will establish a task force
of the Twelfth Fleet of those forces to be assigned to
his immediate command for the purpose of training and
for participating in operations the invasion of Western
Europe; and inform me of its designation.
(2) You will direct him to report for duty to the
Supreme Allied Commander when that officer is appointed;
and prior to that time you will direct him to report to
the Chief of Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander for
duty under the Allied Naval Commander in Chief.
(3) The Eleventh Amphibious Force, and Landing Craft
and Bases, Europe will be assigned to the above Task
Force upon its establishment. Additional U.S. Naval
Forces for this operation, as allocated and made available
in the future will be assigned to this Task Force.
(4) By agreement with the Chiefs of Staff, U.S. Army
references (b) and (c) are cancelled insofar as they place
the U.S. Naval Forces assigned to the European Theater
for participation with the U.S. Army in operations
against Western Europe under the operational control of
the Commanding General, European Theater of Operations.
Instead, the Commander of this Task Force, having reported
to either
the Chief of Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander
or to the Supreme Allied Commander himself, will
operate this chain of command. He will cooperate with
the appropriate U.S. Army Task Force Commanders during
the training and preparatory phases to the end of
adequately preparing the Joint Task Forces for carrying
out their part of the planned operations. For the
embarkation, and during the joint operations of the
U.S. Forces, the Command of the U.S. Army and Navy
Forces will be in accordance with the principal of
unity of command. The shift of Command from the Naval
Task Force Commander to the Army Commander will be
arranged by those officers in accordance with the
normal procedure........"
p.204 #2
VCNO serial 0141812 of 1943; VCNO despatch 161627 September
1943.
p.206 #1
ComTWELFTHFleet despatch 101009 of November 1943;
ComTWELFTHFleet serial 2729 of 11 November 1943. Rear-Admiral
Wilkes reported to CTF 122 on November 10th,
Rear-Admiral Hall reported on his arrival in England
on 27 November 1943. (See CTF 122 serial 08 of 4
December 1943, 11thPhib serial 20 of 7 December 1943;
CTF 122 serial 02 of 10 November 1943.
p.206 #2
CTF 122 serial 001 of 15 November 1943, and CTF 122 serial
001155 of 18 January 1944.
p.206 #3
CTF 122 serial 0043 of 11 December 1943 entitled 122
Operation Plan 1 - 43.
p.207 #1
CTF 122 serial 0043 of 11 December 1943 entitled 122 Operation
Plan 1-43, ComllthPhib serial 0024 of 20 January 1944
entitled CTF 123 Operation Plan B-44.
p.208 #1
CTF 122 Serial 00164 of l8 March 1944 entitled 122 Operation
Plan 1-44; Com 11th Phib Serial 0345 of 22 March 1944
entitled CTF 123 Operation Plan B-44 Revision #1.
p.209 #1
Admiralty letter MC53171/43 of 5 May 1943.
p.209 #2
CICNAF - Admiralty House Portsmouth of 27 July 1943. This
document is something in the nature of Amphibious "doctrine"
but less specific as to how much, with which, and so on.
p.210 #1
See Admiralty letters MO 53171/43 of 12 October 1943, and
MO 53171/43 of 4 November 1943. Several reasons for
appointing Admiral Ramsay and relieving Admiral Little may
be considered. (1) On 4 October 1943, Admiral Cunningham
was appointed First Sea Lord of the Admiralty and Chief of
Naval Staff, succeeding Admiral Pound, who died on 21
October 1943. (See Journal of the Royal United Services
Institution, Vol.1., XXXIX No.553 of February 1944.)
Admiral Ramsay had worked under Admiral Cunningham for
TORCH and HUSKY,
and other Mediterranean Amphibious enterprises.
(2) Admiral Ramsay was especially gifted in the
matter of drawing up practical and realistic amphibious
plans, and at erecting them. In October this was urgently
required. (3) Admiral Little as CinC Portsmouth had a
full job to do in preparing his own command for the logistic
support of the operation and in preparing the forces based
in this command for the operation. (4) Admiralty may also
have been influenced by the consideration that in a combined
operation involving all the services of many nations,
effective unity of operational command cannot be achieved, nor
the full benefit of the logistic and administrative machinery
of each component service obtained unless the functions are
separated with operational command and that only centered in
one officer.
p.211 #1
ANCXF Report, Vol. 1, Page 24.
p.211 #2
XFPM #1 of 27 November, 1943.
XFPM #1 (revised) of 20 December, 1943.
XFPM (second revision) of 17 January 1944.
p.211 #3
See Admiralty MO 53859/43 (revised) and ANCXF Report
Vol.l, page 27.
p.212 #1
ANCXF Report Vol.l, page 24.
p.212 #2
CTF 122 serial 001 of 15 November 1943.
p.213 #1 XFPM #1 (second revision) of 17 January 1944.
p.215 #1 XFPN #2 of 17 January 1944.
p.217 #1
Admiralty M.053859/43 (revised) gave the C's-in-C Home
Commands the following orders:
"The Naval Commanders-in-Chief of the Home Commands
will continue to exercise their normal functions subject
to the following modifications:
-
Operational responsibility for the conduct of the
operation within the "assault area" was delegated
to the Allied Naval Commander-in-Chief.
-
All operations and movements within their commands
must be coordinated so as to give immediate effect to
the requirements of the Allied Naval Commander-in-Chief
as set out in his plan and operation orders,
and communicated by him at the time. It is the
responsibility of the Commanders-in-Chief, Home
Ports, to initiate and conform to all movements of
the naval invasion forces as required by the Allied
Naval Commander-in-Chief. This includes the turn-
round of craft during the Build-up period.
-
Certain facilities within their commands will be
required for the use of the Allied Naval Commander-in-Chief.
Prior to the operation the latter will
state his requirements in this respect. Where
additional facilities are necessary, their provision
is the responsibility of the Commanders-in-Chief,
Home Ports."
Diagram No. 2 (revised) of this same Admiralty document also
shows the Home C's-in-C as under ANCXF for "Control in S.A.C."
while under Admiralty for "Control outside S.A.C."
p.220 #1
Details of the Post-NEPTUNE Naval Organization are given in
chapter X. The generalized account given here is intended
only to indicate to whom the reigns of control were passed
when the assault organization was brought to a close.
p.222 #1
ANCXF Report, Vol. 1, page 24.
p.222 #2
CTF 122, serial 001 of 15 November 1943.
p.222 #3
XFPM No.1 of 27 November 1943.
p.222 #4
CTF 122 Serial 0043 of 11 December 1943.
p.222 #5
ANCXF Report, Vol. II, NC Force G, Section ___ Page 5.
p.222 #6
ANCXF Report Vol.O, Page 26.
p.222 #7
XFPM No. 1 (second revision) of 17 January 1944.
p.223 #1
CTF 122 Serial 00865 of 6 March 1944.
p.223 #2
CTF 122 despatch 041117 of March 1944;
CTF 122 Op.Plan
1-44, serial 00164 of 18 March 44, and ComllthPhib Op.Plan
B-44, serial 0024 revision of 20 March 1944.
p.223 #3
Com12thFleet despatch 141058A of March 1944.
p.223 #4
ANCXF Report Vol.I, page 34; Admiralty Letter M054861/43
of 18 Jan 1944, and M056795/44 of 27 April 1944.
p.223 #5
ANCXF Report Vol.I, page 34.
p.223 #6
ANCXF Report Vol.I, page 39.
p.223 #7
NCWTF Despatch 291942B of May 1944.
p.224 #1
Admiralty Despatch 301738 May 1944.
p.224 #2
ANCXF War Diary for 24 June 1944.
p.224 #3
ANCXF War Diary for 24 June 1944.
p.224 #4
ANCXF War Diary for 27 June 1944.
p.224 #5
ANCXF War Diary for 30 June 1944.
p.224 #6
ANCXF War Diary for 30 June 1944.
p.224 #7
ANCXF despatch 241612 June 1944.
p.225 #1
CTF 122 despatch 262328 June 1944.
ANCXF War diary of 27 June 1944.
p.225 #2
CTF 122 despatch 262328 June 1944.
ANCXF War diary of 27 June 1944.
p.225 #3
ANCXF War diary for 3 July 1944.
p.225 #4
ANCXF War diary for 22 July 1944.
ANCXF War diary for 25 July 1944.
ANCXF despatch 161335 July 1944.
ANCXF despatch 182203 July 1944.
ANCXF despatch 192324 July 1944.
Admiralty despatch 222010 July 1944.
p.225 #5 Ref. ANCXF War diary of 20 September 1944.
Cositintrep No.170 of 21 September 1944.
Admiralty despatch 200652 September 1944.
Admiralty despatch 200651 September 1944.
p.227 #1
O.N.I. Appx I.
p.228 #1
XFPM #2 of 17 January 1944.
p.230 #1
ON-1.
p.230 #2
CTF 122 serial 0066 of 23 February 1944. (this was called the Kirk-Bradley Agreement.)
p.230 #3
FTP 155 of 1935 Joint Action of the Army and Navy.
p.231 #1
This agreement was called the Stark-Lee Agreement. The title was "Responsibilities in
Captured Ports -- Joint Agreement between Commanding General, European Theater of Operations,
U.S. Army, and Commander, U.S. Naval Forces Europe, "dated 5 March 1944".
p.232 #1
NJC 1004 of 1 February 1944, Appx. R.
NJC/00/302 of 23 March 1944.
6 July 2005