Chapter 2
Organization for Landing Operations

    Paragraphs
Section I. Organization and Command 34-45
II. Beach and shore parties 46-51
III. Station and maneuver areas 52-57

Section I
Organization and Command

  1. Control.--

    1. A joint expeditionary force may be organized into two or more joint attack forces if separate operations are contemplated at such distances from each other as otherwise to make control difficult or impracticable. A joint attack force includes a naval attack force and the landing force associated therewith.

    2. Coordination of the operations of Army and Navy forces is by mutual cooperation or by the exercise of unity of command. See Joint Action of the Army and the Navy.

    3. For the normal respective tasks of the Army and the Navy in the joint oversea movement and the subsequent landing operations, see Joint Action of the Army and the Navy.

    4. Army and Navy commanders of a joint expeditionary force with their respective staffs should be embarked on the same ship, as should also the respective army and Navy commanders of a joint attack force. This method should be applied where practicable, through all echelons of command.

    5. The mutual exchange of highly qualified liaison agents assures a degree of cooperation between the Army and the Navy not otherwise readily obtainable. In joint operations the commander of one service should have on his staff members of the other service.

  2. Naval Attack Force.--A naval attack force is the naval unit in landing operations. consisting of transports, cargo ships, and supporting naval vessels, operating against a continuous shore line, usually designated by the geographical name of the locality, or by the terms "right," "left," "center,"
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    etc. The naval attack force is subdivided into naval task groups appropriate for the various operations involved and the scheme of maneuver adopted.

  1. Naval Task Groups,--

    1. The normal Navy missions (tasks) during the landing operations are reconnaissance; protection against enemy naval forces; furnishing, manning, equipping, and operating the small craft required for landing personnel and matériel of the landing force; support of the operation by mine sweeping, ship gunfire, aircraft and screening operations, fire from boat guns, and removing underwater obstacles; and signal communication between ships and shore.

    2. Vessels of the naval attack force are organized into task groups to carry out the above missions.

  2. Reconnaissance Group.--

    1. The reconnaissance group or groups consists of vessels assigned the task of reconnoitering the are selected for the operation, and such other areas as may be considered desirable in order to deceive the enemy as to the point of landing. The reconnaissance group is generally composed of suitable vessels from the other task groups listed below.

    2. The reconnaissance group's missions include--

      1. Identifying fixed reference points on the beach and establishing other aids to navigation.

      2. Securing photographs and panoramic sketches to assist boat group commanders in locating their beaches, troop commanders in planning shore operations, and fire support groups in planning and executing supporting fires.

      3. Ascertaining enemy naval dispositions within and in the vicinity of the landing area.

      4. Determining the suitability of beaches and sea areas for the conduct of the operations.

      5. Locating mined areas, underwater obstacles, and other obstructions such as booms and nets.

      6. Ascertaining of beaches have been contaminated with chemicals.

      7. Locating enemy dispositions on shore and selecting suitable targets, landmarks, and aiming points for fire support ships.

      8. Securing information regarding the enemy air force.
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  1. Fire Support Group.--

    1. The fire support group or groups consists of vessels assigned gunfire missions in support of the landing and subsequent operations.

    2. For detailed missions and organization of the fire support groups, see chapter 6.

  2. Air Group.--

    1. The air group consists of aircraft assigned to support the operations. Aircraft of the landing force may be attached to the air group during such periods as desired.

    2. The operations of the air group include--

      1. Reconnaissance and photographic of enemy positions.

      2. Observation of gunfire of the fire support group and the Army artillery.

      3. Protection of the attack force against enemy air operations.

      4. Attack of enemy objectives.

      5. Transport of parachute and other air landing troops.

      6. Close support of the landing force, and liaison with the landing force.

    3. Since aerial reconnaissance will be one of the primary means of obtaining information as to enemy dispositions, special arrangements should be made for Army personnel to accompany naval aerial reconnaissance where matters of joint interest are concerned.

  3. Transport Group.--

    1. The transport group or groups consist of the transports and supply vessels used in carrying troops, equipment, and supplies.

    2. The missions of the transport group are--

      1. Preparation and assembly of transports, boats, and special equipment for the landing, and assembly and training of personnel for the operation of vessels, boats, and equipment.

      2. Assignment of boats to transports and, if necessary, the organization of boats into boat groups.

      3. Embarkation of troops and matériel.

      4. Conduct of the transport group in the movement overseas.

      5. Debarkation of troops and matériel.

      6. Designation of boat rendezvous area, or areas.

  4. Control Group.--

    1. The control group consists of vessels designated to control the movement from ship to shore,
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      provide communication facilities with the boats and troops while en route to the beach, and to assist in controlling the supporting naval gunfire. Certain vessels of this group are utilized at convenient times to lay smoke screens, assist in furnishing fire support, and similar missions.

    1. The normal tasks of the control group are to--

      1. Mark control points to regulate the ship-to-shore movement, and other points designated by the attack force commander.

      2. Control the movement of all boats between the rendezvous areas and the beach.

      3. Keep attack force commander and such other commanders as may be designated informed as to the progress of the ship-to-shore movement, the landing of the waves, and subsequent operations on shore visible from seaward.

      4. Assist in control of naval gunfire.

      5. Relay messages to and from the landing beaches.

    2. If practicable, one vessel of the control group is assigned to each leading boat group.

    3. Each control vessel is equipped to communicate directly with the landing boats, the landing beaches, the flagship of the attack force, fire support groups, control group, and other designated vessels. Control vessels communicate to higher commanders and fire support groups information regarding the time when waves pass control points and the line of departure (see pars. 55 and 56). Visual, radio, and messenger boat communication is established with the beach party as soon as it has landed. Special observers are detailed to watch for pyrotechnic signals from the boats, aircraft, and the landing force.

    4. After marking or identifying the line of departure and control points, designated vessels of the control group rendezvous with the boat groups at the specified time and place, assume control, guide them in to the line of departure, and regulate the speed so that successive waves will cross the line at the scheduled times. In this manner orders modifying the plan may be transmitted to the boat groups through the proper control vessels.

    5. Whenever practicable, the approach from the boat rendezvous areas to the line of departure is a simultaneous guided movement, each control vessel acting as a guide to a boat group.
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    1. Designated control vessels may be utilized as a rendezvous for boats transporting field artillery and reserves after the leading boat groups have landed.

    2. In case the transport group is compelled to put to sea for any reason, control vessels may be designated as mother ships for the boat groups until the boats and transports are reassembled.

  1. Antisubmarine Group.--The antisubmarine group consists of the vessels designated to protect the attack force from submarines. This group may also be given the task of laying smoke screens.

  2. Mine Group.--

    1. The mine group consists of the vessels assigned the task of mine-sweeping and mine-laying operations. It may also remove underwater obstacles. Boats assigned the mission of removing enemy obstacles near the shore should be protected at least against enemy small-arms fire.

    2. Part or all of the mine group may be assigned to the reconnaissance group for mine-sweeping operations in connection with the preliminary reconnaissance of the landing area.

    3. Particular attention is paid to mine sweeping of transport and fire support areas, and approaches thereto.

    4. Booms, nets, and other obstructions are removed by dragging the obstacles into deeper water, by wire-cutting parties, by explosives, and by utilizing boats or small craft to cut breaches.

  3. Screening, Salvage, and demonstration Groups.--The screening, salvage, and demonstration groups are vessels assigned, respectively, to provide security from enemy forces afloat, to rescue personnel and salvage boats and equipment, and to make demonstrations outside of the designated landing area.

  4. Landing Force.--The landing force consists of the Army (or Marine) organizations which are to carry out landing operations from the transports of a naval attack force.

    NOTE--Marines employed as landing forces function in the same manner as Army landing forces, whether operating with the Navy alone or in conjunction with the Army and Navy.
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    1. Tasks.--The normal Army tasks in landing operations are--

      1. Deployment into the boats used for landing which are operated by the Navy.

      2. Delivery of fire with its own weapons while landing, and furnishing assistance in manning designated naval boat guns.

      3. Gaining of a foothold on shore.

      4. Organization of a beachhead.

      5. Organization and conduct of operations to extend the beachhead.

      6. Conduct of operations beyond the beachhead for the accomplishment of the mission.

    2. Organization.--

      1. Transportation facilities of available transports, boats, and small craft are limited as are also the facilities for debarking matériel from the boats and small craft. These limitations impose restrictions on the organization of the landing force. For support in the first stage of attack the landing of tanks, except amphibious types, is difficult and the landing of heavy artillery and other heavy matériel is impracticable. The absence of operating bases ordinarily makes it impracticable to employ Army air units before and during the early stages of the landing. Special organization is therefore required to reduce ship cargo requirements, facilitate debarkation of intact combat units, provide increased rifle, machine-gun, and mortar fire in lieu of normal artillery support, and insure mobility of the first units ashore.

      2. The organization of the landing force must be such as to facilitate employment of battalion combat teams in independent action at least during the first phase of the landing operation. For definition of combat team, see paragraph 8e.

      3. Based on tactical requirements primarily but also on economy of transport loading, the landing force is organized into embarkation groups. The necessity of careful organization in the embarkation phase is obvious when consideration is given the close relation between embarkation and the debarkation for ship-to-shore movement in the actual landing operations.

      4. For the movement from ship to shore the landing force is subdivided into landing groups each consisting of a battalion
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        combat team and other elements such as a beach and a shore party, forward echelons of higher headquarters, and liaison personnel. A battalion combat team is the basic Army unit in landing operations; for composition see paragraph 8e. It is normally transported in the ship-to-shore movement by a boat group.

Section II
Beach and Shore Parties

  1. Beach Party.--

    1. The beach party is a Navy task organization for the control of the beach from the high-water mark seaward. It is commanded by a naval officer, the beachmaster. li> The size of the beach party depends on the extent and importance of the beach and the troops and matériel to be landed thereon. It normally consists of the following details: signal communication, boat repair, medical, civil engineer, labor, and mess. It should include one or more liaison agents from each battalion combat team and previously trained artillery and Air Corps liaison personnel from the Army.

    2. Tasks of the beach party are--

      1. Reconnaissance of the beach, and selection and marking of landings (landings are usually marked by signs or flags showing the letter assigned the beach followed by a number, as A-1, A-2, etc.)

      2. Marking all hazards to navigation.

      3. Boat traffic control.

      4. Landing and hauling off of boats.

      5. Communications with naval task groups and with beach parties on adjacent beaches and transmission of messages of the landing force, both ship to shore and shore to ship.

      6. Emergency boat repairs.

      7. Construction of landing facilities.

      8. Unloading matériel of the landing force.

      9. Evacuation of casualties and prisoners of war.

    3. The order for the landing provides for the designation by boat group commanders of the traffic control and messenger boats for operation by the beachmaster after troops disembark.

  2. Shore Party.--

    1. The shore party is the task organization of the landing force for the control of Army administrative
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      activities at the beach. It is commanded by an Army officer who is on the staff of the senior troop commander on the beach and is known as the shore party commander.

    1. The shore party consists of a headquarters and any or all of the following detachments from units of the landing force: medical, supply, labor, engineer, military police, chemical, and communications. These detachments, assigned to the shore party to secure effective operations at the beach during and immediately after the landing, revert to control of their respective organization commanders as soon as the situation warrants.

    2. The tasks of the shore party include--

      1. Maintenance of liaison between beachmaster and senior troop commander ashore.

      2. Maintenance of order.

      3. Control of stragglers.

      4. direction of traffic and work of prisoners.

      5. Selection and marking routes inland.

      6. Assignment of operating, bivouac, parking, and storage areas for the services using the beach.

      7. Prompt movement of equipment and supplies from shore.

      8. Decontamination of gassed areas.

      9. Establishment of information and message centers.

      10. Making recommendations as to landing of vehicles and supplies and the establishment of a supply system.

  1. Landing.--

    1. The beachmaster and shore party commander, with a small nucleus of the beach and shore parties, landing in the leading boat group. The remainder of the parties are not landed until required. The bulk of the working details will not be needed on the beach until the second or subsequent trips of the boats when large quantities of supplies begin to arrive.

    2. Beach party personnel may be used to assist boat crews during the movement from ship to shore.

    3. Shore party personnel may be used as gunners, ammunition passers, or to assist the boat crews in any way during the ship-to-shore movement.

  2. Initial Evacuation Service.--

    1. The beach party (Navy) is responsible for the evacuation of casualties from
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      the beach to hospital ships or transports. Medical personnel for ambulance boats are furnished by a hospital ship or transport, as directed in the administrative plan.

    1. The beachmaster should have the ambulance boats assemble where they will be least exposed to fire and can be called to the evacuation landings as required.

    2. In case the number of boats is so limited that there are insufficient boats to handle the evacuation until reserve battalions have been landed, evacuation of casualties to hospital ships may be delayed until after the landing of these reserves.

    3. For details of the medical service afloat and ashore, see section VII, chapter 10.

  1. Personnel.--

    1. Beach and shore parties are not normally provided in the unit organization of either the Army or the Navy. They are therefore organized by detaching personnel temporarily from permanent organizations.

    2. The number of each and shore parties is dependent on the size of the landing force and the number of beaches utilized. Labor details, in particular, will vary with the amount and type of equipment and supplies landed at each beach. In general, one beach party and one shore party are organized for, and embarked the same transport with, each assault battalion combat team. If a particular operation does not require all of the beach and shore parties so constituted, the personnel not needed initially may be held in reserve or used to reinforce the parties on the more important beaches. In the same manner, when beaches are abandoned, beach and shore party personnel thereat are moved promptly to reinforce the parties of beaches to be kept in operation.

  2. Cooperation.--

    1. The fullest cooperation is required between the beachmaster and shore party commander in order that available personnel and facilities may be utilized to the best advantage.

    2. The shore party commander and beachmaster should make a joint reconnaissance of the beach and the terrain in the immediate vicinity thereof in order that storage areas for landing force matériel may be so located in respect to the best landing places that handling may be reduced to a minimum.
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    1. The shore party commander utilizes engineers to assist the beach party in building and improving landings, in unloading heavy equipment, and in removing beach and surf obstacles or mines. Signal and medical personnel of the two parties operate in close liaison, and message centers of the two commanders should be in close proximity to each other.

      NOTE--The Navy term "communication center" is equivalent to the Army term "message center."

    2. The shore party commander maintains liaison between the beachmaster and the senior troop commander on a beach. The shore party commander thus provides one officer through whom the beachmaster conducts all necessary transactions with units ashore.

Section III
Station and Maneuver Areas

  1. Assignment of Areas.--

    1. The naval task groups are assigned appropriate station and maneuver areas within the landing area to permit them to carry out their assigned tasks. These areas include one or more transport areas in which transports or other vessels disembark troops and equipment, and one or more fire support areas in which the fire support groups operate.

    2. In addition, other stations or cruising directions are prescribed to coordinate the naval operations within the landing area.

    3. The transport and fire support areas are so located in relation to each other that movements of boats transporting troops and matériel and movements of firing ships will not conflict.

  2. Transport Areas.--Transport areas are conveniently located in respect to landing beaches, and as close inshore as enemy artillery fire and depth of water permit. So far as the hydrography of the landing area permits, they should afford smooth water for debarkation and protection against attack by surface craft and submarines, and they should be free of mines. Two or more transport areas may be necessary if beaches are separated by considerable distances. The location of the area or areas should not disclose to the enemy the
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    exact point of landing. As soon as the situation permits, the transports move as close to the beach as possible to facilitate landing equipment and supplies.

  1. Fire Support Areas.--The number of fire support areas depends on the number of supporting ships, the fire missions, and the hydrography and topography of the landing areas.

  2. Line of Departure.--

    1. The line of departure is a coordinating line (offshore) suitably marked to assist the various waves to land on designated beaches at the proper time, and to coordinate naval gunfire and aircraft operations with the movement of the boats.

    2. During daylight, unless prevented by reefs or other navigational hazards inshore of the line of departure, boats deploy into their attack formations on or before crossing the line of departure. In order to insure that this deployment will take place prior to the boats coming under effective small-arms or light artillery fire, the line of departure should be from 2,500 to 5,000 yards or more from the beach. If hostile light artillery is disposed on or near the beach, the line of departure must be established at a greater distance from the beach. The line should be so oriented in relation to the landing beach that boats will, if possible, have a straight run for the beach and the waves will be on prescribed direction lines.

    3. In order that boats may land on schedule it is highly desirable that the line of departure be accurately located with reference to the beach. However, if this is impracticable or incompatible with secrecy, airplanes may be employed to guide and regulate the approach to the beach.

    4. A separate line of departure is designated for each beach except where beaches are contiguous, then one line of departure may suffice for two or more beaches.

  3. Reference and Control Points.--

    1. Reference.--For reasons of secrecy and to simplify the preparation of plans and orders, it will be found convenient to designate reference points for prescribing the limits of transport areas, fire support areas, and lines of departure. Each reference point is designated by a latter and is fixed by giving its direction and distance from a known point, grid coordinates, or the latitude and longitude.
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    1. Control.--

      1. Control points are reference points which are marked by buoys, boats, or small craft as aids to navigation for the vessels and boats of the attack force. They are established to indicate lines of departure; points where boats change direction or pass through lanes between fire support groups, and points which will assist the control group in regulating boat movements; and to aid the various supporting groups to move into the landing area, take accurate station therein, and conduct prescribed operations in the area on the time schedule.

      2. A control point may be established as the initial point for regulating and coordinating the movement of the various naval task groups into the landing area. As an aid to navigation and to insure effective control, it may be desirable to establish the initial point at a considerable distance to sea.

      3. Marking vessels must take accurate station on the designated control points. If the depth of the water permits, it will be advisable as a preliminary measure to anchor at certain control points buoys which are not visible from shore. This procedure is particularly important in the case of the line of departure in order that the enemy will not be forewarned as to the exact point of landing. Small craft may be stationed at the buoys at the proper time to insure their being identified by boats or vessels not familiar with the landing area. Where the line of departure is close inshore it may be undesirable to put down buoys. In this case, the control vessel may signal the leading boat group when the line of departure is reached.

      4. Marking vessels fly identifying flags by day and show a light to seaward by night. Provision is made for marking vessels at the initial point and at certain control points within the landing area to dispatch radio signals which may be readily identified when picked up by homing loops (airplane radio navigational equipment).

    2. Table.--A table of reference and control points is usually issued as an annex to operation plans and orders. The table may be typed on a diagram showing the various station and maneuver areas, as indicated in figure 1.

  1. Illustrative Diagram.--

    1. Figure 1 shows how transport and fire support areas might be located for landings by echelon on beaches C, B, and A. The initial landing is made
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      Figure 1--Station and maneuver areas
      Figure 1.--Station and maneuver areas.

      at beaches C and B, and then at A. The boats from transport area No. 2 proceed toward beach D and turn near control point E for a straight run for beaches C and B. In order still further to deceive the enemy the leading boats may constitute a demonstration and continue on toward beach D. As the landing is by echelon the transports in transport area

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      No. 1 arrive later than those in area No. 2 and the boats from transport area No. 1 have a straight run for beach A.

    1. Ships in fire support area No. 3 support the landing at beach C. Ships in fire support area No. 2 support the landing at beach B, and later at A. Fire support groups 4 and 1 are assigned counterbattery, interdiction, and fires on targets of opportunity north and south, respectively, of the line SS', but may reinforce the fires on the beaches with guns not engaged in their primary tasks.

    2. Control points H, J, P, and Q mark the lines of departure. Control points E and M provide additional coordinating points for the movement of the boats and, at the same time, are so located as to aid the transport and fire support groups to take accurate station. Control point T is the initial point for regulating the movement into the landing area.
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