If this global network of computers could serve to help man better understand and organize information, as Bush suggested the Memex would, wouldn’t it be an effective tool for the dissemination of news information? If it were to be used as a medium for news the Web could enable users to better analyze and comprehend the events in the world around them. In order to become a popular medium with widespread acceptance the Web would have to reach many people and have systems with which to provide content and information. In addition, it would have to overcome many obstacles that face new technologies in process of diffusion.
New technologies often follow a pattern of adoption into mass markets. Everret Rogers’ theory on the Diffusion of Innovation suggests that the diffusion of a new technology will follow a pattern. There is a slow start as the innovators investigate and adopt the technology and then a period of significant growth as others follow their cue (1983). A crucial part of the theory is known as the Innovation - Decision Process. The third stage of the process is the when the decision occurs (p. 165). It is at this stage that the technology is either adopted or rejected. Will the Web be adopted as a major medium for the dissemination of news as radio and television did?
An example of a technology that failed to gain popular acceptance as a tool for news dissemination is the Videotex. This electronic news service was introduced in the early 1980s and was expected by some to gain widespread adoption. John Carey discussed the early enthusiasm for the Videotex and the predictions of it success (1982). He pointed out many of the weaknesses and misconceptions that kept the Videotex from wide adoption and ultimately led to its failure in the United States. In contrast, the characteristics of the Web make it a much more viable candidate for success in the information market. This thesis will argue that the tools and design of the Web will make it viable medium for news information.
The Web’s capability to link information sources, combined with the ability to include multimedia data, make the Web an effective medium for the disseminating information. When considering the astounding growth of the Internet, the world wide computer network that includes the World Wide Web, it is clear that the medium needs to be investigated as a carrier of news information. The Internet has already grown a great deal. From 1992 to 1995 the Internet grew 31,155 percent (Rutkowski 1995). This means that the Internet connects more places around the globe and can provide a greater audience. The introduction of the protocols that make up the World Wide Web was the catalyst for this growth.
With the World Wide Web growing in popularity throughout the world, it is necessary to investigate what role it will play in the dissemination of news. Many of the characteristics and tools of the Web make it an effective system for the dissemination of information. There is a need to illustrate the changes that are coming for the way people will receive their news as a result of the advance of digital technologies. Why should we care? This future news media experience is going to shape the way people see the world around them. The world’s knowledge and understanding of current events will be shaped by it; for better or worse.
The purpose of this thesis is to show that the World Wide Web possesses characteristics that will make it a primary source for news information. Whether the Web will become a primary device for news distribution will depend on a number of important questions: 1) Do economic factors indicate a trend towards adoption of on-line news; 2) Do political factors indicate a trend towards adoption of on-line news; 3) Do social factors indicate a trend towards adoption of on-line news.
This is a descriptive study and the method will include the analysis of previous research combined with current statistics. First, the study will investigate previous attempts to introduce new media systems and compare them with the diffusion of the Web as a medium. Second, this study will compare statistics and research to discover how or if the Web addresses the social, economic, and political issues necessary to achieve adoption of innovation.
The first chapter will review the basics of digital technologies and the history of the Web. The second chapter will be a review of the literature on research into the Internet, new technologies, and the Videotex trials. The third chapter will analyze current statistics and show how the Web is beginning to meet the social, economic, and political needs for the diffusion of this innovation and is poised to take a prominent role news dissemination. Chapter four will review some of the newest Web technologies that will add further value to the Web as a news medium. Finally, chapter five will discuss conclusions and limitations of the research, and make predictions for future of news.
Chapter 2
Review of the Technology
2.1 Digital Technology: The Basis for Modern News
Sampling and Coding
In order to discuss how the Web has changed and will continue to change communications it is necessary to have an understanding of what digital technology is. The basis for digital technologies is ones and zeros. This means that all digital information is binary. How does this happen? At the most basic level the information is coded this way. In computing, text is converted into binary form by assigning a value to each character using a string of ones and zeros. A standard binary code for the representation of text was established called ASCII. ASCII stands for the American Standard Code for Information Interchange. The establishment of a standard protocol for text recognition was essential for the creation of person to person, textual based communication, on networked computer systems. The ability for computers to interchange data regardless of the type of computer system was fundamental in the rise of modern communications technology (Burger 1993, 136).
The process is a little more difficult when dealing with sound or video. The visual and auditory information found in nature is analog. This means that the information is made up of continuous signals that have smooth fluctuations. The sound or light can be represented by waves. That which we see is made possible by light waves and that which we hear is created by sound waves. These waves can be digitized after they go through a process of conversion from analog to digital.
Like ASCII text, audio and video information is also coded for digitization. In this case the information is not assigned a random code but it is sampled. The sampling process involves recording the frequency and amplitude of waves at a set

Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2
interval. Sound and video are composed of waves that can be sampled at consistent intervals so that the waves can be reproduced. The rate of sampling needed to create a satisfying visual or audio playback is based on the limits of human perception and the limits of the hardware. The intended use or audience is also taken into account. The faster the sampling, the more storage needed for the data and the more elaborate the equipment.
To faithfully reproduce a sound or moving image the rate at which the information must be sampled is twice the rate of the highest frequency to be digitally represented. This is known as the Nyquist Theorem. What this means is anything that is sampled at a slower rate than two times the highest frequency may suffer perceivable quality loss. In some cases a slight loss of quality is acceptable when considering limited storage or bandwidth (Burger 1993).
CD audio is sampled at a rate of about 44,000 times a second (44.1kHz). This creates the illusion of seamless sound waves. This is a fast sampling rate that is designed for the highest quality with little regard for storage space. This type of sampling rate is often not practical for computer multimedia applications but satisfactory sound can be achieved at slower rates (Holsinger 1994, 110). The creation of new data streaming methods is eliminating these limiting factors and will be discussed in a later chapter.
The Advantages of Digital Communication
Once digitized, the information is binary. Since the information is based on numbers it can be manipulated like any set of numbers. These numbers are what we know as bits. These bits are what computers process, receive, and transmit. These simple bits have already changed communication as we know it.
One of the characteristics that makes a bit so valuable is its ability to travel. Any one who has used Email has sent ASCII coded bits to another location. Bits can travel through a variety of media and they can travel quickly. When compared to analog signals this looks pretty good. This is actually just one small part of the list of advantages to digital data.
Analog signal transmission—as in traditional television, radio, or phone transmission—is subject to signal attenuation. It is the nature of the waves being transmitted to be susceptible to interference. When the data is transmitted digitally some data can be lost but, it is much more reliable. In addition, information can be added to the signal to correct any errors that result during transmission. "On your audio CD, one-third of the bits are used for error correction. Similar techniques can be applied to existing television so that each home receives studio-quality broadcast—so much clearer than what you get today that you might mistake it for so-called high definition" (Negroponte 1995, 17). This sort of data correction exists on the Web to try to ensure that information gets to its destination without loss.
The transmission of digital data does not require as much bandwidth as analog signals. This means that information can be sent down a smaller pipe. An example of this is the difference between an analog television signal and a digital. The spectrum allocation for one channel of analog television can be filled with several digital channels that can offer a better picture. On the Web, the rules of bandwidth are the same. The amount of time necessary to receive all of a file is dependent upon the size of the file and the available bandwidth. The ability to compress the data helps to make digital information very valuable.
Consider this information in a bigger sense. Anything that can be represented by bits can now be distributed reliably around the world at amazing speed. The dissemination or transport of this information is inexpensive. And if the information is traveling via the Web it never has to leave the atmosphere to find a satellite (depending upon the telecommunications system). This makes digital transfer very attractive for all sorts of applications, especially to those in the information business. The transmission process is only limited by the speed of the processor, capacity of the transfer media, and available bandwidth. If the amount of data can be reduced then faster transmission can be achieved. Hence the creation of data compression. Compression reduces the size of digital files using mathematical formulas. This enables designers to utilize more elaborate presentations and greater detail for dissemination via the World Wide Web.
2.2 The World Wide Web
The History of the Internet and the World Wide Web
All of these discussions about digital information are important because all of the information on the Web is digital. The World Wide Web is the network through which computers around the world can send or receive these digital signals. It all started here in the United States as military project. In 1968 the Department of Defense was in need of a communications network that would be able to function even if portions of the network were suddenly eliminated. It was the height of the cold war and the U.S. military needed a communication method that could withstand a nuclear attack. The solution was the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network, or ARPANET (Kroll 1992). This network utilized packets of information that could reliably find their way to a destination. The key was that the protocol used by the network would be able to detect a path that would get the information there reliably.
The first nodes were set up in 1969. Much of the work on the network was being done by computer scientists and engineers at universities so these nodes were set up in the universities (Prater 1994, 163). The decentralized architecture of the network made it relatively easy to add more computers and expand the network. The network grew quickly and found its greatest use among researchers and universities. By 1983 the network had grown enough to split the network into two separate ones, one for research and education, the other for the military.
The fundamental factor in the explosive growth of the ARPANET was the creation of a standard protocol for the transmission of data. The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) set the standard and made it possible for different computers to communicate across vast networks. The value of this communication medium led to the creation of the NFSNET. The National Science Foundation invested money to connect universities and research centers making TCP/IP the standard for what is today known as the Internet (Prater 1994, 150).
In March of 1989 a scientist named Tim Berner’s-Lee proposed to CERN a project that would allow researchers to read each other’s work over the Internet. Berners-Lee proposed a new language that would include hypertext. This Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is the language that Web pages are written in today. The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) was created as the standard to handle these new documents (Magdid et al. 1995, 9).
By July 1992 the idea and software for this new World Wide Web had been disseminated through CERN. It still lacked the sort of widespread impact that we see today because the software was only designed for expensive computer work stations. The browser was a text-based browser but, the idea of the World Wide Web was gaining acceptance on the Internet. In 1993 the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) released a browser that worked with more common computers. Suddenly, the World Wide Web could be utilized by a much larger number of people. The new browsers were more stable, reliable, and relatively user friendly (Magdid et al. 1995, 12). Then in 1993 a man named Marc Andreesson suggested the addition of an additional HTML tag (programming code) that would allow a document to include images (WWW-Talk and WWW-HTML Mail Archives 1993). This suggestion led the Web to become a truly multimedia medium.
How Multimedia was Introduced
When the first browsers were introduced in 1992 they created a revolution on the Web. The Web had been textual domain in which only the "techno geeks" could be comfortable. Browsers that utilized a friendlier (relatively) graphic interface and made the transfer and display of images possible created a broader audience. The natural progression was to try to improve upon this basic display of images by including sound and eventually the moving image. Why not? It seems logical considering the amount of information transmitted to homes across America through cable systems.
The idea seems simple enough to the non-techno nerd but, the differences in transmission methods, media, and protocols makes it much more difficult. The first transmission of images and sound was simply the FTP (file transfer protocol) of a file. This is the method of transferring a data file from one place to another. Once received, the file could be stored and then processed by some application on the clients machine. In 1992 a format for the identification of file type was proposed by Nathaniel S. Borenstein at the ULPAA '92 Conference in Vancouver. Borenstein thought that it would be a great idea for people to be able to do "multimedia email." He proposed the creation of MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) extensions for use on the Internet. Borenstein’s MIME extensions were later incorporated into browsers for the Web (Borenstein 1992). These extensions are now used by browsers to identify what kind of file to interpret.
As browsers became more powerful they could process more of the information within the program. Netscape, currently one of the most popular browsers, now includes a player for .au and .aif audio files. When combined with the ability to display .gif and .jpg images in a document, this makes for a better, but still very basic, multimedia experience.
The addition of the programming language Java has further increased the capability of Web browsing. It enables the browsers to update images, trigger sounds, react to user input, and more. And now there are over thirty different programs that enhance the capability of certain browsers (Browser Watch 1996). These "plugins" are being created by independent software makers to add functionality. There are plugins that allow users to view pre-formatted documents, view VRML (Virtual Reality Markup Language) documents, view CAD (Computer Aided Design) documents, and more (Netscape’s Currently Shipping Plugins 1996).
All these improvements add versatility to the presentation of materials on the Web but file size and bandwidth are still key issues. The more elaborate graphics and sounds a Web page has, the larger its file size will be. This puts real constraints on the designer and the methods with which information is presented. This is why digital compression is important. The information provider can include more information in a smaller package.
The Progression of Compression
The technology behind data compression is difficult to follow. The advances in compression capabilities are coming so fast it is hard to keep up. There is a great demand compression techniques that will not noticeably lose information. The demand is driven by the need to transmit and store more digital information. The compression of images has been one of the biggest motivations and challenges facing engineers because images require a great deal of data to accurately reproduce an original.
Engineers began working on compressing video shortly after the widespread dissemination of television. The drive to create a color picture created a need to add more information to the existing black and white format. The work continued in the late 1950s as the AT&T worked to develop the in famous live video and phone combination that permeates science fiction novels.(Van Tassel 1994, 12) When the frequency allocation standards for television were set the push from television broadcasters for compression was mitigated. Still, many companies and institutions continued to work on the technology.
Real progress was made throughout the 1960s and 1970s in working to digitize and compress visual data. The Media Lab, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, began its work with electronic imaging in the early 1970’s. Other than research interests there was little incentive for work in the field. That changed when there was serious money at stake.(Brand 1988)
Once again, broadcasters created an atmosphere ripe for innovation. The lure of profits and the subsequent investment drove the advance of compression technologies. They were actually prospective broadcasters. The creation of their services depended on digital video compression (DVC). Direct Broadcast Satellite systems were going to need to compress many channels into a stream of information that formally carried one. The engineers knew that a reliable, affordable solution had to be found. In this case, the pressure was on because the companies had already received the space allocation for their satellites and invested large sums of money into them.
Video Compression Pushes Forward
Compression techniques and hardware improved quickly. The satellite broadcasters needed fast, reliable systems that could offer choices to the audience. In addition, they wanted to reduce the size of the dish required to receive the signal. Smaller dishes mean more powerful transponders are needed and there is a limited number of transponders that can fit onto a satellite. The ability to compress video signals helped to solve the problem. The current DBS systems can compress the information of many channels and broadcast them using one transponder. This eliminates the need for one trasnponder per channel and allows the DBS companies to offer a wide variety of programming. This variety was is one of the key selling points for the DBS providers.
Another selling point for the DBS providers has been digital audio. The audio signal that is digitized can be compressed and distributed like all the other data. The DBS providers capitalized on this. The public has accepted digital audio and seems to be aware of the enhanced sound quality that it offers. The signal providers knew that this would enhance the richness of the viewing experience and hoped to gain subscribers.
Digital compression is used by cable operators, too. The compression of channels can be utilized to increase their ability to increase programming as well. All of these systems require sophisticated decompression cards at the receiver’s end. This technology has only become reliable and affordable to the consumer in recent years. It will become more prevalent as it gets cheaper. In many areas the mechanism is already in place. Subscribers have accepted set top boxes in their homes and the implementation of decoding devices will be no more intrusive.
The standards for compression are constantly changing. This is a result of constantly improving schemes as well as distribution of video decompression players. The constant battle is the compromise that must be made between visual quality and available bandwidth. For the entertainment industry the standard that is being accepted is MPEG-2 (Comp.compression: Frequently Asked Questions 1994). The Motion Picture Experts Group has created this standard because MPEG-1 did not create a picture of high enough quality. The Direct Broadcast Satellite operators (DBS), Cable Television (CATV), and High Definition Television (HDTV) are or will be using some form of MPEG-2. (Stroud et al. 1995).
Compression can be achieved using hardware or software. The software solutions enables computer users to playback video without expensive upgrades but, the hardware solutions are often faster and more effective. The viewing of video on the Web and LANs (Local Area Networks) reveals the problems of bandwidth limitations. Traditional phone lines can’t yet support the amount of information needed for full frame video at 30 frames per second. For the LAN, the playback is limited by demands created by multiple users but, these limitations are slowly being overcome. (Krill 1995)
The solutions for video compression are getting better. The current limitations to frame rates and size will eventually be overcome. In addition, the players that are available for the general population are becoming widespread. These players are being written to support any number of compression formats. This is going to create an atmosphere that will allow the transmission and reception of video through computers regardless of the type of computer. Providers will be able to produce a product and know that the masses will be able to view it. This will allow video to be seamlessly integrated into practical Web applications.
Bandwidth And The New Telecommunications Solutions
The issue of bandwidth is an important one. In the most basic sense
bandwidth can be defined as the amount of information that can moved at
one time. A good analogy is that of a funnel. If the funnel has a wide
opening at the bottom a lot of water can pass through at once. If you fill
the funnel at a rate faster than it can pour out the bottom, then you’ve
exceeded the available bandwidth. On the World Wide Web the protocols used
to transfer data are able to route the data to its destination even if
the bandwidth is exceeded. It does this by holding the data until a route
can be found and then it checks to ensure that all of the data arrived.
If the bandwidth is limited than the transmission of data is delayed. This leads to long waits as information is downloaded. In the case of streaming video or audio this becomes a crucial point because the player is interpreting the data stream as is receives it. If the information is delayed the playback will skip over the lost data packet. Thus the lower bandwidth connection limits the capability to present information.
This highlights the importance of high bandwidth connections to the Web. Thanks to the passage of new legislation this is quickly becoming a reality for home users in the United States. Traditionally the way home users connected to the Web was via twisted copper phone lines. As modems have gotten faster the speed of transmission has increased will ultimately reach a bandwidth limit in the near future. The next step in the battle for bandwidth was the move toward ISDN. The Integrated Services Digital Network allows phone service providers to provide higher bandwidth connections to those that are willing to pay. It requires special phone lines and modems to operate (About ISDN 1996). The ISDN systems transmit data more reliably and efficiently that traditional modems and phone lines (Malkin 1994). Unfortunately, many systems are just beginning their service to many communities and informed personnel are often hard to find.
The good news is that cable companies have been experimenting with cable modems. Coaxial cable has a significantly higher bandwidth than twisted copper. Connecting to the Internet using cable modems is a significant step in the progression to a new news media. This high bandwidth connection will be able to facilitate a vast amount of information. The initial trials have been promising. It seems to be a natural progression that will be welcomed by the information hungry. Most of the United States is wired for cable so that part of the equation should be relatively easy (McCrystal 1994). Many problems will still need to be sorted out because the original design of cable systems was to provide a one-way stream of information. If the promise of the Web is to be realized in full it will require a two-way stream of communication. These problems will be overcome as consumers and the market dictate.
A major obstacle for the cable Web connections was recently eliminated by the U.S. government. The 1996 Telecommunication Bill is now law and will allow open competition between phone and cable providers. The bill has been floating around Washington since the 1980's as a Republican open market idea. Before this bill was passed it would have been very difficult for the cable operators to enter the Internet service provider market. The result of the bill is going to be a renewed focus on new communications markets that were previously stagnant. The mergers and acquisitions are flying as the battle to offer high bandwidth connectivity heats up.
Now there is renewed interest and a great deal of capital going towards the creation of these high bandwidth home connections. The amount of information and the speed at which it will travel is growing. All of these developments are leading to a new news media. A media that can incorporate richer, more detailed information and facilitate two-way communication.
There are already at least 9 companies producing cable modems and many cable operators have committed to purchases (Cable Modem Trials 1996). TCI cable has is running one of the biggest trials in Sunnyvale, CA. Its @Home program has been received substantial backing and success (@Home 1996). Time Warner’s Cable, Continental Cable, Comcast, and Cox cable are all upgrading there systems and testing their abilities to handle two-way traffic (Breznick 1996). By the end of 1997 select communities around the United States will be able to achieve high bandwidth connection to the Web via reliable cable modem service. Once the first systems are established and standards are created the conversion of all cable systems will be quick to follow.
Conspicuously absent from this idealistic look at the future of media is the Direct Broadcast Satellite operators. Their offering is targeted at those that were not satisfied with cable operators or not yet wired for cable. One of their key selling points is the ability to send more information at better quality, thus providing a richer media experience. DBS providers are also prepared for the release of HDTV. This is logical move and has proven relatively successful as the number of DBS customers continues to grow. Unfortunately for DBS, the future media and the Web may be detrimental to their success. Like cable operators, the DBS system was designed for one-way distribution. The dilemma is that the current architecture cannot facilitate the two-way interaction that is so critical to the future of media. This puts cable operators at a tremendous advantage as they can more easily update their systems to facilitate phone service and Web access in addition to their traditional services.
In the shifting telecommunications markets DBS will have to come up with creative solutions to the two-way communication dilemma. Currently the operators have a very primitive two-way system in place for the Pay Per View offerings. The customer simply calls the order in via traditional phone lines. This system will not be sufficient for the immediacy requirements of the future media offerings. This may be overcome if the DBS providers aggressively seek to create an ambitious integrated communications system to enhance the upstream capacity. The lifting of the telecommunications restriction makes this seem more plausible but there is another major barrier that supersedes all others. The nature of the Webbed World is a networked system connected via routers and served by servers. The routers are an essential tool in routing requested information to its destination. This is individualized, requested information that travels to a client. That which makes the DBS system cost effective for today’s media is what will make it unable to provide the future media experience. The satellite transmissions allow the dissemination of information over a vast area to a mass audience. They cannot however, provide the personalized, individualized, immediately requested information that will be the culmination of the new information media paradigm.
DBS providers have made their first steps to get into the next level of information providing. DirecTV, the leading high-power direct broadcast satellite (DBS) service in the U.S., and Microsoft signed an agreement to include the necessary software to enable PC’s to receive video programming. In addition, computers will be able to receive additional multimedia information. "The high-speed broadcast transmission capability of DirecTV will provide scheduled delivery of multimedia information containing elaborate graphics, audio and digital video as well as information and software code" (DirecTV, Microsoft In Pact 1996). The key word here is scheduled, not requested, and there is no ability to hyperlink.
Chapter 3
Literature Review:
To investigate the viability of the Web as medium for the dissemination of news it’s necessary to take a look at a variety of research. The reason that this makes sense is partly because the Web is a young medium and there isn’t much research available on it yet. Much of what is available is simply forecasts about the future capabilities of the Web and research on early Internet communications. This is quickly changing and in the next few years there will be a great deal of research available on the Web.
An excellent example of this forecasting comes from Nicholas Negroponte. Negroponte published his ideas about the future of communications in a digital world. His book Being Digital, published in 1995, is based on his years of work as the Director of the Media Lab at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Negroponte 1995). The book described the advantages of digital information over traditional media. Negroponte compares the difficulties of transporting atoms instead of bits and extols the ease of transporting digital information.
The book clearly shows how networked computers can be an incredibly efficient tool for disseminating information. In addition, he predicts a time when people no longer need to read newspapers but instead read their news from durable, portable, and easy to use devices that download the latest news. A technology like this supports the idea that the Web will become a major source of news. If the device were plugged into the Web the information could be easily transferred.
One of the other issues that Negroponte discusses is the need for intuitive interfaces. Ease of use is an essential aspect for consideration for any technology to be adopted. Users like an interface that can be easily understood and one that they are comfortable with. Other advantages of networked digital media that Negroponte discusses stem from the ability of the user to interact at some level. The immediacy of the system allows the user to receive information quickly. These interactions also give the user the ability request particular information. Negroponte sees this as an important tool in the future of information dissemination. The users can receive personalized news presented in a format and style that they dictate. This type of system makes networks like the Web an efficient medium for news presentation.
While the Web is too young to have a great deal of research about it the Internet is not. There is a great deal of research available in the area of computer mediated communication research (CMC). The bulk of this deals network communications that were utilized before the adoption of the World Wide Web’s hypertext transport protocol. Despite this, some recent work published by John December includes discussions of some relevant issues. December tries to present standards by which future Internet research can be conducted. His definitions of Internet communications will give future researchers a framework to work with. His attempts to define "media" in the context of the Internet is an important focus because the presentations of multimedia is one of the features makes the Web an effective news dissemination tool.
In "The Internet as a Mass Medium" Merrill Morris and Christine Ogan investigate why the Internet hasn’t been greatly researched by mass communications researchers. This essay, like that of December, addresses the need to define terms for research. It’s focus is on applying the theories of mass communication research to CMC. Two of the concepts that are particularly relevant to the Web’s position as a news provider are "Interactivity" and "Uses and Gratification." The interactivity that the Web offers is one of the features that will help to position it as a widely adopted news source. In addition, the Web’s ability to satisfy the uses and gratification sought by users will be key to its adoption.
One of the most important comparisons to make in this investigation is of the Videotex and the Web as a news provider. The Videotex was an early attempt to provide electronic news delivery in a textual and graphic environment. The failure of the Videotex to gain acceptance as a prominent source of news could seem to indicate that the Web would suffer the same fate. The inference is made because of the similarities to the Web in transmission method and the premise of graphic and textual presentation. The reality is that the Web can facilitate a great deal more functionality than the Videotex system could.
The uses and gratifications issue was studied on this Videotex system (Atwater, Heeter, and Brown 1985). This study was based on the first exposure of subjects to a system called Viewtron in a South Florida University. The study found that subjects believed the system would most likely fulfill their need to find out about what was happening in the world around them. This surveillance need to gain information about major news events was the highest rated uses and gratifications statement by subjects. It will be important to analyze the Web’s ability to satisfy these needs.
John Carey wrote an essay on the Videotex that called the Videotex a sign of things to come, despite its failure (Carey 1982). Carey’s investigation was based on the pattern of diffusion for new media. He notes that much of the participation and investment into the system was based on the misconception that Videotex would follow the growth pattern of television and radio and become a mass medium in a decade. The essay contrasts this with the 70 years that it took telephones to gain 50 percent penetration (p. 84). Some of Carey’s conclusions advance the Web news argument. "Consumer’s in the US do not purchase individual pieces of information. They subscribe to information services and pay simple, flat rates for information consumed on a regular basis"(p. 86). This follows the payment scheme that many of the Internet service providers are adopting.
The adoption of any new innovation is often dependent on the political atmosphere into which it was introduced. Since the Internet was originally created by the military there was definitely an atmosphere of political support in the early days (Kroll 1992). Then the Internet continued to enjoy support through the National Science Foundation. The significant growth that the Internet has experienced in recent years places greater emphasis on the government policies that control it. There have been few advances in the history of new media that have experienced such growth.
Robert W. McChesney points out the similarities between the revolution in communications as a result of radio broadcasting in the 1920s nad the growth of the Internet.. "As with the Internet in the 1990s, radio broadcasting was a radically new development, and there was great confusion throughout the 1920s concerning who should control this technology and for what purpose"(1996, 3). McChensey argues that the government has shown a pattern controlling new communications technology in a manner that will most benefit business regardless of democratic ideals. Ideological arguments aside, this type of policy acts to support the creation of information providers that are Web based.
Another study by Susan Hadden and Edward Lenert argues that telecommunications networks require government intervention in order to ensure universal access (1995). The government action that they claim is necessary is opposite the type of action that McChensey claims is policy. The Hadden and Lenert study asserts that the diffusion of innovation model that is often used to predict patterns of adoption is not appropriate when discussing telecommunication networks. They state that the nature of networks is different than the commodities usually associated with the diffusion model. The networks are physically different, they need many users to be powerful, and the networks act as infrastructure (p. 122).
The diffusion of innovation model proposes that innovations will be adopted in a standard, predictable pattern (Rogers 1983). The model suggests that innovators will first adopt a new technology and then others will follow suit based on cues from the innovators. The rate of adoption follows a curve that starts slowly and then increases greatly. The curve falls off when the widespread adoption is achieved and the stragglers finally adopt the technology.
Hadden and Lanert argue that the pattern of adoption is slower for telecommunication networks. Despite this, the growth of the Internet continues in direct contrast to this assertion. The Internet is experiencing a tremendous amount of growth. An important issue that is raised is the need to ensure universal access. The political atmosphere is one that focuses on free market ideals for growth of business telecommunications. The belief is that this will lead to the accessibility of the technology and promote universal access. This political climate was made very clear with the passage of the 1996 Telecommunications Act. The statement of purpose at the top of the Act reads:
Chapter 4
The Analysis
For the Web to gain widespread acceptance as a source of news it will have to overcome a variety of social, economic, and political obstacles. There are a number of factors that indicate a trend towards acceptance of the basic technologies necessary for use of the Web. When this is considered in conjunction with the Web’s ability to efficiently present news information, the argument for Web news services is advanced.
Social Factors:
Currently, the use of the Web requires the use of a computer. This means that the adoption of the Web is dependent on the adoption of computer use. The explosive growth of personal computer market in the last decade has been plainly evident. For many Americans the use of computers is an everyday event. Computers are found in the home, at work and in many schools. The United States government started inquiring into computer use habits during the 1984 census. Since then there have been two other samples taken in 1989 and 1993 (U.S. Bureau of the Census 1996a).
The U.S. Bureau of the Census surveyed approximately 55,000 homes in its investigation of computer use in the United States. The survey included an inquiry of persons using a computer anywhere, at home, at work, and at school. The responses indicate an increase in the use of computers in all categories.
The census indicated that the number households with a computer with a computer increased 15.3% from 1984 to 1993. By 1993 22.8% of the homes surveyed had a computer in the home (See Appendix 1 Figure 3.1). For young Americans ages 3 to 17 years those with access to computers grew from 15.3 % in 1984 to 31.9% in 1993 (See Appendix 1 Figure 3.2). The 18 and older group with access to a computer grew from 9.1% in 1984 to 25.6% in 1993 (See Appendix 1 Figure 3.3). These increases indicate a trend of adoption of computer technologies in the U.S. Specifically, the fact that the number of homes that have a computer in them has increased strongly supports the social acceptance of the technology.
Another important factor to consider is the willingness of society to accept an alternative form of news. There is data that indicates that the way Americans get their news is changing (See Appendix 1 Figure 3.7). This would indicate that there exists an environment that includes changing needs and perceptions about news. The Pew Research Center for the People and the Press conducted a nationwide survey investigating the news habits of Americans. The survey was conducted in late April 1996 using a random digit dialing pattern (Pew Research Center For the People & the Press 1996b).
The survey found that fewer Americans are watching the nightly news programs. Viewership was down among 18 to 29 year olds and 30 to 39 year olds in all three categories of Network News, Local News, and Cable News Network. Among the 50 years and older group there was little change. The 18-29 year old respondents showed a 14% decrease in network viewing, a 13% decrease in local news, and a 6% drop in CNN viewing. The 30-49 crowd showed a 7% decrease in the viewing of network news, a 9% drop in local news, and a 6% in CNN. The 50 years and older group only varied by 1% or not at all in each category.
While this seems unrelated to the future of Web news there are three important aspects of the trend that may be related. "First, younger people are turning away from TV news in greater numbers than older people. Secondly, the rate of TV news audience falloff among Americans who use computers appears greater than among those who do not use a PC " (Pew Research Center For the People & the Press 1996a). The third aspect is that the number one reason cited for not viewing is lack of time. This lack of time is cited more often among young people.
The first two factors make sense because the younger people are more likely to use computers. Therefore, if computer users watch less, than young people will tend watch less news. The survey asked if computer users had watched the news, read the newspaper, or listened to radio news the prior day. For the computer users as whole there was a 7% decline in TV news viewing from 1995 (See Appendix 1 Figure 3.4), a 6% decline in newspapers read (See Appendix 1 Figure 3.5), and 1% increase in listening to radio news (See Appendix 1 Figure 3.6). These declining numbers would seem to indicate that computer users are less informed or are getting their news from alternative sources. The exception is the radio category that experiences a small increase. Radio listening is an activity that can easily be carried out while performing other tasks. This ability to carry out multiple tasks at once would appeal to the respondents that cited a lack of time for other news sources.
A significant finding involves the computer users that admitted using
on-line services. Among these on-line computer users the decrease in the
use of television news and newspapers was greater than the decrease for
all computer users. The level of television news watching dropped 9% and
the newspaper reading fell 14%. These decreases are significant because
they indicate that on-line users are finding alternative news information
or are less informed. These findings indicate that, at the very least,
trends indicate an acceptance of computers and a move away from television
news.
Political Factors:
The ability of the Web to prosper is partly dependent on the government’s policy towards it. The role of the network as part of the telecommunications infrastructure ties its success to government policy. From its beginnings as a military network to its transfer to the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Internet was a government creation. In the United States, this means that the Internet and the Web have enjoyed a great deal of support. There have recently been some big changes for the Internet. The NFSNET that was the backbone of the Internet was replaced at the end of April 1995 in favor of a commercial system (Cerf 1995). This is part of the push towards the privatization of the Internet.
This move towards privatization could have meant trouble for the Web but, it continued to thrive. A major reason for this is the government’s commitment to create an atmosphere that will encourage innovation in the area of communications. The 1996 Telecommunications Act was created to foster competition in these markets. As a result more companies are fighting to provide Internet access to the growing market.
Even the early days of the Internet were started with the intention of letting private companies take over and maintain the network. This was a policy that worked regionally and led to the growth of the whole network. "The regional networks quickly became the primary means by which universities and research institutions linked to the NSFNET backbone. NFS wisely advised these networks that their seed funding would have limited duration and they would have to become self-sustaining"(Cerf 1995). This policy encouraged, and eventually led to, commercial development of the networks.
This policy to support the commercial development of the Internet makes it ripe for the advancement of commercial services. For information providers, this means that they can get into the business of providing content on the Web with confidence that the market will continue to prosper. The astounding growth of the Internet has been documented by a number of sources. The accuracy of the statistics can not be proven due the nature of the networks but, the growth is evident.
The number of Internet hosts and domains around the world are growing. The domains are the local networks that are connected to the backbone of the Internet. Within the local networks each computer is given a host name that acts as a computer address. Users seeking information from a host must access it through its host name. Mark Lotto, a researcher from a group called Network Wizards, has attempted to keep track of the Internet growth by tracking the number of new hosts and domains. The number of hosts grew from 1,313,000 in January 1993 to 9,472,000 in January 1996 (See Appendix 1 Figure 3.8) (Network Wizards 1996). The number of domains grew from 21,000 to 240,000 during the same period. These dates are significant because the January 1993 date corresponds roughly with the introduction of more reliable World Wide Web browsers.
These numbers indicate that current political policies are not slowing the growth of the Web. In the first half of 1995 there were 106 countries with domains. That is 15 more than six months earlier (Rutkowski 1995b). This worldwide growth indicates that countries feel the need to get connected despite the political implications. Whether or not the masses can freely utilize the Web will be determined by each government.
The number of actual users is impossible to decipher but, there is an indisputable trend of growth in the network that can only serve to strengthen the case for news providers presenting their information on the Web. The trends indicate the adoption of the communication networks that are the foundation of the Web by countries around the world.
Economic Factors:
If the Web is to become a primary source of news for the masses there must be a financial commitment among the news providers. The success of any communications medium in a capitalist society is dependent upon its economic viability. Since the Internet continues to grow in the United States, despite the political move to privatization, there must be economic forces driving its growth.
The growth of the Internet has been documented but this does not provide any indication as to its future as a dissemination tool for the news provider. The news providers are revenue generating companies and must see an opportunity to make money on the Web.
This is the key economic consideration in the adoption of the Web as a medium of dissemination. If the growth in the Internet is only due to governments feeling pressure to connect and not the ability for companies believing it is an effective investment then the news providers will not feel the need to adopt the medium. There must be an audience. The growing number of computer users and on-line services suggest that there will be an audience. There are many profit oriented companies that have already invested in the providing Web services based on the predictions of a growing audience. The most common domain name on the Web is "com." This is the domain name used to indicate a commercial company on the Web. The com domain name grew 24% in the first six months of 1995 making 1,734,390. It grew faster than the second largest domain name, "edu," that denotes an educational institution (Lottor 1996). This shows that commercial interests in general are adopting the Internet.
The newspaper industry has already shown a significant interest in utilizing the Web for dissemination. Newspapers began to make news available on the Internet through alliances with Internet service providers like America On-line. Despite the failure of Videotex, papers were willing to take a chance on this new medium as early as 1993 for fear of being left behind. These early incarnations of on-line newspapers were primarily textual and were considered an add-on to the paper copies (Keizer 1994).
These early papers, about 20 in early 1994, were disseminated through either an electronic bulletin board (BBS) or contracts with particular service providers that would charge the papers money. The growth of the Web and its economic advantages were recognized by the newspapers and the Web quickly became the primary method of electronic dissemination. By August 1995 there were 313 on-line newspapers. This was a 200% growth from the beginning of 1995. Of the these on-line news providers 73.5% were utilizing the Web (Outing 1995a).
The number of newspapers presenting their information on-line has continued grow. In 1996 the number climbed from around 750 at the beginning of the year to 1,115 by May. Of these on-line papers 94% are on the Web. This number continues to grow as newspapers end their association with specific Internet service providers and adopt the Web (Outing 1996).
These numbers show a definite trend for newspapers providing Web based information services. There is a strong commitment by the industry to move towards this type of information dissemination. In addition to the papers that have already spent the money to create on-line services there are new alliances forming to foster continued growth. In April 1995 the New Century Network, a coalition 8 major newspaper companies in the U.S., announced that it had committed $8 million to creating a network of on-line newspapers. The papers would link through information sharing and advertising (Garneau 1995).
Chapter 5
The New Tools of the Web
Cybercasting: the Future for Video and Audio on the Web:
The developments in cybercasting are of great importance to the future of news on the Web. A vast majority of Americans get their news, at least in part, from viewing or listening to a newscast. Viewing a newscast provides the richest sensory experience for an audience. Seeing and hearing the story adds to an individual’s ability to understand and comprehend the information. Radio broadcasters and print journalists may argue that a beautifully prepared story in their respective media carry as much information but, it just isn’t so. This is why the progress in cybercasting is an important step towards the realization of the future of news. It enables information providers to provide video and audio via the Web.
Cybercasting is still an ambiguous term. It is most commonly associated with the process of streaming visual or audio information through cyberspace. This is an overused, ambiguous term referring to communications on the Internet. The suffix "casting" insinuates that it is related to the more traditional form of widespread information distribution, broadcasting. In reality, cybercasting is fundamentally different from broadcasting because it not passive. The client must request the information rather than just tune in the broadcast information.
The request for the information is not a difficult process. In fact, it is getting easier and more passive everyday. It takes little effort to trigger the serving of an information stream and designers are always trying to make it easier. The more customized the user’s browsing environment becomes the easier it will be to initiate whatever requested information-streams have been preset.
The phrase that best describes this process of requesting data streams is "broadcatching" (Brand 1988). It was coined by Stewart Brand at MIT to explain the server/client communication necessary on the Web. The forms of cybercasting that are becoming popular for transmission on the Web are beginning to be received in a more traditional real-time playback format but, they must still be initiated by the client. The fact that the playback and interfaces are getting to be more traditional is good for the user because we like things to look like what we are familiar with
There is one fundamental aspect that separates viewing and listening to downloaded files from cybercasting. Whether it is FTP or a browser that gets the files, they must be received and stored, at least temporarily, by the client. Then they can be processed into something useful to the client. Even Hot Java, the powerful new programming language for the Web, must load all the information it will need to carry out its duties as an applet (a miniature program).
Cybercasting Proper
That which separates cybercasting from the other forms of viewing and listening on the Web is the streaming of data. Cybercasting servers serve out signals to client machines that request them. These streams are processed in real-time. This means that the data is processed as it is received. The information never has to be stored. The players usually utilize a caching system in order to allow more seamless playback but it is not necessary.
The Client
On the client end, the user, there needs to be a player. This player can be designed to decode video, audio, or both. Many of the players are free to the user and can be downloaded and installed with relative ease. Many of the companies that support cybercasting ventures are currently giving the players away. Their revenues will come from the server end through sales and support of their systems. This is an monumentally important point. The free distribution of these decoders enables a client with a moderately powerful computer system to view or listen to the streaming data without adding hardware to their system. As computer sales continue at a strong pace around the world all the that will be needed is a connection to the Web. What will this mean to international flows of information? How will it influence countries that depend on licensing for television revenue if users can watch video for free on the Web?
The Server
The servers stream the data to the client upon request. The data is a digitized and compressed video or audio signal that may be a stored file or a real-time translation of a live feed.. The compression format used is one that each specific player is designed to interpret. The most popular currently in use is a form of MPEG. A likely reason for stored files to be served is in the case of archived material. The Internet Multicasting Service is good example of this. They use a player called Real Audio to serve a weekly interview program. They now support Xing Technologies Streamworks player as well.
Stored digital video or audio files that can be accessed by Web users will become a valuable information source for the future. Carefully organized and indexed archives will become effective part of an information provider’s tools for dissemination. Most of the cost of the cybercasting systems will have to be paid by the information providers. These systems will have to include powerful hardware, wide bandwidth connections, and large storage arrays to facilitate the current demands of serving digital audio and video.
The serving of live feeds of audio or video in real-time is a much more complex process than receiving. It requires the encoding and compression of the information instantaneously. This requires expensive hardware in addition to the serving software. As computers get faster and these systems are more widely used the costs for these systems will decrease.
The level of quality for cybercasting systems varies according to the manufacturer. In general, the video systems are not really practical at the moment. Video encoding requires a great deal of information in comparison to audio so it suffers more degradation with the current schemes. In contrast, some of the audio schemes are working quite well and provide high quality audio. Even some of the real-time audio encoding is getting very good with little loss of quality and greatly reduced bandwidth requirements.
The Audio Players
There are several players available and the numbers are growing. Those companies that currently have players and servers are constantly updating them every time they find a more efficient solution. The updates can definitely show marked improvement.
The Streamworks system made great improvements with their last update (Xing Technology Corporation 1996). The real-time audio from radio stations like WXYC come through with relatively few dropouts and at very low bandwidth. If bandwidth isn’t a consideration they can serve great stereo music sampled at 44Khz (that’s CD sampling rate), again with little dropout.
Real Audio is a another player that claims it can play streams back at quality equal to FM radio signals (Real Audio 1996). It is a scaleable system that allows the server to adjust for the available bandwidth. The Streamworks server can do this as well.
There are a number streaming solutions that play audio that is embedded into Web pages. This is for compressed audio files that the page designer has links to in their page. Truespeech is one of these players that is meant to be used as an alternative to putting traditional audio files in a Web page (DSP Group, Inc. 1996). The page will link to the Truespeech file and the clients browser spawns the player that decodes the file as it comes in.
ToolVox and Internet Wave are two more solutions that work the same way (Internet Wave 1996). ToolVox can launch the application immediately upon opening the Web page (ToolVox 1996). This means that the page designer can now incorporate un-requested audio information in the basic page. As long as the client has this player installed to work with their browser they don’t have to do anything besides go to the page. This had been possible using Java applets but, this information had to be loaded to the client’s machine and not streamed in real-time.
The Video Players
Video streaming on the Web has a lot of improvement to make. There have been tremendous improvements but, picture quality, size, and frame rate are still inadequate. The amount of information that must be encoded from each frame of video creates a great deal of difficulty. The compression process includes a number of tricks in order to reduce the amount of information that is streamed. The image size is reduced and the number of frames per second are reduced. This makes the video small and jumpy. Combined with the blockiness caused by the compression algorithm, the video has a way to go.
There are a number of companies that are currently providing video streaming servers and players on the Web. The first was mentioned above from Xing Technologies. Streamworks will also stream video but not as nicely as the audio. The second video streaming company is VDOnet with their player called VDOLive (VDOLive 1996). VDOLive looks like the best at the low bandwidth video transmission game. They have the problems listed above but, improved compression, increased computation speeds, and increased bandwidth will all help this situation improve quickly.
PreVu is a real-time decoder for MPEG files that works like the devices that are designed to interpret data that is streamed at specific rates (VDOLive 1996). It simply decodes the information as it comes. At present, it doesn’t handle audio but that isn’t far off. This is an effective idea that makes browsing pages with embedded movies or audio more interesting. Now the client doesn’t have to wait for the whole file to arrive before they see or hear something. The limitation is that the rate that the data is received cannot be controlled effectively and the playback can, and usually is, choppy and inconsistent.
The Bottom Line On Cybercasting
In spite of its current shortcomings, the potential for cybercasting is enormous. It already lets parties communicate orally from anywhere around the world. It allows users to listen to high quality audio from anywhere. And it allows us to see video images - not very good, but understandable - from anywhere. Cybercasting has overcome the dilemma of storage limitations through real-time players. The user no longer has to store the file so the server can retain the quality that is desired. Combined with more effective streaming methods, users can enjoy beautifully clean, stereo audio with little drop out.
The issue of bandwidth is still a limiting factor and is now the primary limiting factor. As mentioned in a previous chapter, the bandwidth issue is being attacked in a number of ways that have allowed for impressive progress. The new hardware and software compression/decompression schemes are becoming more efficient, reducing the need for bandwidth. The amount of bandwidth that is physically available is constantly growing and will substantially increase for the general public in the near future.
All of this makes for an exciting future for cybercasting. The future for cybercasting has the potential to be great. Whether it can fulfill that promise will depend on many factors; regulation, bandwidth, dissemination, and the capability for upstream communication. These issues will dictate whether cybercasting is a triumph for world communication and tool that empowers individuals, or just a new way to catch a "Happy Days" rerun.
Networked Virtual Reality
Many of the early advances in VR technologies were designed for single user functionality. In addition, they were designed for a specific platform. Much of this was do to the vast amount of data that has to be processed in virtual environments. This made VR a very limited technology for multiple user environments. Fortunately, some VR technologies are now being designed to facilitate multiple users in a networked system. The first steps have been made in the sharing of 3D environments over wide area networks. Facilitating this progress is the establishment of standards that allow cross platform interoperability. These advances will allow VR to play a more crucial role in communications and information dissemination.
The networking of 3D environments has become an important issue for VR developers. Distributed VR will help it achieve its potential as a communications medium. The creation of the World Wide Web focused attention on the need for networked VR on wide area networks. An essential step in this process was the creation of a standard protocol for the dissemination of 3D environments. Once the standard was established many different developers could contribute content and design virtual environments.
VRML
The standard that was adopted is the Virtual Reality Markup Language. VRML was conceived in the spring of 1994 at the first annual World Wide Web Conference in Geneva, Switzerland (Bell et al. 1995). A special interest group was set up to discuss the creation of a standard for 3D design on the Web and a mailing list became the forum for discussion (VRML Htpermail Archive 1995). From these humble beginnings the specifications for VRML 1.0 were set and now the specifications for 2.0 are in the works (VRML 2.0 Information 1996).
The emergence of VRML was accompanied by speculation and enthusiastic predictions about its potential for distributed VR on the Web (Magdid et. al 1995, 502). The immediate reality was that it remained a relatively exclusive technology because of its demands for bandwidth and powerful computers. Now there are many VRML viewers that can easily be incorporated with common Web browsers. In addition, the constant increases in processor speeds and memory in personal computers are making widespread use of VRML a reality.
VRML is designed to be a 3D environment that allows users to navigate through a scene. "It is based on the ASCII format of Silicon Graphics' Open Inventor language" (Pesce 1995). Silicon Graphics’ was one of the most successful companies in 3D design and their format was well accepted by those suggesting standards. Certain areas within the scene can be clicked on by the user and they will hyperlink to other World Wide Web documents. These hyperlink areas are preset by the designer and allow the VRML scene to utilize this key benefit of the Web protocol in a 3D environment.
An important feature is its ability to be used on multiple platforms. These features add to the value of VRML and may help it to become a widespread form of information dissemination. One of the major shortcomings of VRML is its inability to allow interaction among multiple users. The current level of interactivity is limited to the users’ ability to navigate through a scene but, there are other forms of networked VR on the Web that can facilitate user interaction. There is a company that is designing software that will enable users to communicate as they move through a virtual environment in what they call VRML+ (VRML+ 1995).
Interactive Networked Environments
User interaction is major issue for communication researchers because it involves two-way communication amongst users. An intriguing approach to virtual environment interaction is Worlds Chat (Worlds Chat 1995). This interactive, distributed, VR is based on the early Internet chat sessions called MUD’s (Multiple User Dungeons). MUD’s are areas where users interact in real-time, in textually based imaginary scenes. Worlds Chat utilizes a 3D environment in which the users are represented by an object of their choice. These objects, or "avatars," are available at the site or personal designs can be imported.
Worlds Chat deals with the limitations of networked VR by having the information about the environment on each user’s computer. The host machine then only needs to send information updating the movements of the avatars. The communication between each user has a long way to go. Currently, it is limited to textual exchanges in balloons that appears above each avatar. The Worlds, Inc. proposed VRML+ platform will work in the same manner but will be based on a VRML standard.
The bandwidth intensive interactive environments on PC’s are made possible because most of the information is on each user’s computer. This is the same model the Worlds Chat program uses. Each user must have the software on their computer and the only information transferred is input changes. When the input is received it is immediately updated in the other user’s virtual environment.
Future Developments in Networked VR
The future for networked VR applications in communication is bright. At the moment, the biggest limiting factor is bandwidth and processor speed. Both of these obstacles are rapidly being overcome. In the not too distant future designers will be able to distribute detailed virtual environments with the notion that they will be viewable by many different users on a variety of systems.
This means that we will see more intuitive interfaces in 3D form. More importantly, people will be able to interact in 3D environments that will be more familiar and easier to understand. VR simulations will help information providers relate information and users "experience" situations or events.
The current weaknesses for 3D interaction in chat environments will be eliminated. The addition of moving worlds within the standards for future VRML protocols will help to make the interactive environment more fulfilling. The fundamental change for these will come from addition of users’ audio input. There will be no need for the use of textual interaction. The addition of audio perception devices will enable users to communicate orally in the environment and maintain their spatial perception.
The fulfillment of the promise of VR will come through its ability to be disseminated through networks and used on widely available machines. This is what will make VR an integral part of communications. When augmented with sophisticated sensory activating devices, multiple users will be able to experience things that were not possible before. And then they will be able to share the experiences.
Hot Java
Java is a programming language that adds increased functionality to Web pages (Java Programming for the Internet 1996). It was originally designed to be a programming language for use with household devices. The people at Sun Microsystems spent a great deal of time and resources trying to make Java into a widely accepted object oriented programming tool. It has found a great deal of success since its inclusion in the design of Netscape’s World Wide Web browser.
The advantages of Java are far greater than simply making Web pages look nice. Java allows a degree of interactivity for the user. When the Java program (applet) is received by the client it is interpreted and run locally. It performs its function without needing constant updating over the network and can execute operations based on user input. Conversely, the applets can be designed to go to specific location on the Web and continually update the page’s data.
The applets can perform operations that trigger animations or sounds, perform calculations, allow the manipulation of graphics, or whatever the programmers can design. The applets are available to page designers from a number of sources that archive them (Gamelan 1996). This makes Java a valuable tool for the creation of useful pages. The power of Java can be used to dynamically update information.
A logical use for this technology in the presentation of news would be to display a series of headlines or images to attract a reader/viewer to a particular story. This approach is already being incorporated by some of the online news providers like the Nando Times that shuffles through a series of photographs at the top of the page (Nando Times 1996). C|net, an online magazine, uses Java to list the top stories in a scrolling fashion while the rest of the page stays unchanged (C|net Online - Front Door 1996). Many of the most effective uses of Java have been on the pages of news providers to make the most effective use of space on their initial pages.
Chapter 6
Conclusions:
The adoption of the World Wide Web as a primary source of news is dependent on a number of factors. While it is not within the scope of this investigation to determine if users are utilizing the Web for news, it can be shown that the basic technologies required for Web interaction are being accepted. Computer use is increasing as is the use of on-line services. A logical comparison with the Webbed news services is that of the Videotex systems.
While these Videotex services failed to gain acceptance, the Web based services will not. Carey’s investigation into the failure of the Videotex explained the diffusion process of other communications innovations (1982). Based on his analysis the Web has already moved to latter stages of acceptance. The first use comes through business, then through public stations like schools and coffee houses, and finally to home use (p. 85). The amazing growth of the commercial hosts indicates the adoption of the Web in the business world. The appearance of on-line cafes is an interesting example of exactly the type of public station Carey pointed out in the adoption of telephones. Finally, the adoption of home use is evident in the success of the Internet service providers that are popping up around the world .
Carey gave two major reasons that the telephone took 70 years to gain 50% penetration. The first is price barriers and the second is discomfort with the technology (p. 85). As young people grow up with computers discomfort with the technology won’t be an issue. In addition, Web allows for easy to use "point and click" interfaces that can be designed to look familiar to the user. The issue of price barriers doesn’t seem to be an issue in light of the ever increasing number of people using Internet services.
Some of the primary reasons that Carey cited for the failure of Videotex were its expense for users and its difficulty of use. The software was designed for specific searches "not casual leafing through pages or individualized style of perusal" (p. 83). As stated previously, the issue of expense doesn’t currently seem to be a problem for the growth of the Web. The graphic capabilities and linking characteristics of the Web enable designers to create pages that are easy to navigate. Specific searches can be achieved but, are not necessary. Web news providers are using different formats for presentation. The news services at Yahoo are presented in a summary of daily news or separated by categories like business, technology, sports, or world (Yahoo Headlines 1996). Some news providers are creating services that are personalized based on the stated interests of the user (Infosage 1996).
The survey of users’ first exposures to the Videotex conducted by Atwater, Heeter, and Brown supported what Carey published three years earlier.
Many of the obstacles that prevented the adoption of the Videotex don’t exist with the electronic dissemination of news via the Web. As more people use computers the use of the Web as a news source will be come more familiar and satisfying to users.
Limitations
"NetroNews:" The Future of News on the Web?
Many people think of newspapers as having more depth than television news. Must that be so? Similarly, television is considered a richer sensory experience than what newspapers can deliver. Must that be so? (Negroponte 1995, 20)
Why are all of these technological advances significant? Haven’t we seen many a new technology introduced with a great deal of hype and fanfare only to be quickly forgotten? These advances are important because they are part of a worldwide revolution in how people are going to disseminate and receive information. The way that people learn about the world around them and the events that are important to them is changing. The role of traditional media in the is now going to have to give way to the new paradigm. All of the different media sources will be available from one mechanism and the sensory experience they each provide we overwhelmed by a new, richer experience. We will call this new phenomena "Netronews." Netronews will embody many of the desirable aspects of conventional news and offer much more. There can be little argument that most people would prefer a multimedia experience to a purely textual one when seeking information. The saying, "a picture speaks a thousand words" has its roots in this idea. The increasing move to color photographs in newspapers is indicative of the consumers attraction to visuals (as well as better printing techniques).
When augmented with audio, the experience is further enhanced. Why do people turn their on their televisions when they learn that there is a major news event happening? They seek the immediacy as well as the richness of the information experience provided by TV. After hearing an announcement of a terrorist bombing, one doesn’t run into the house to hear about it on the radio. People want to see and hear the information so they can better understand it. This is why the Web, in conjunction with new technologies, change the role of news providers and cybercasting will become an essential part of the Netronews package.
The Merging of the Media
The line between traditional television news providers and newspapers will become blurred. The number of newspapers that are online is growing rapidly. The Newspaper Association of America claims that there were about 175 newspapers available online in North America by the end of 1995. The numbers of papers published elsewhere and available online was around 600 (Papers Move Online 1996).
Once the technology is in place these news providers will be able to provide satellite weather photos, video of the days events , movie clips, and more. This blurring of services will fill a need for many people that would like an in-depth and sensory rich news experience at their convenience. Simply open the location with the Web browser and read/view whatever stories you want to. These experiences will not be limited to basic presentation of little windows of video of choppy sound bites. The new experience is going to be far more satisfying than television or radio can offer.
The Netronews provider is going to need to provide a diverse array of content. The in depth textual backgrounds for the brief video summaries that the client requests. The video content will be provided by the video news services that are already in the business of creating video. This need for content is going to lead to a great deal of cross ownership in different media markets. If the current laws that restrict this sort of cross ownership aren’t eliminated it will create an unprecedented distribution of media through exclusive offering deals among the conventional media providers. This of sort special dealing is seen in some of the exclusivity rights that many of the online providers tried to establish with different print media, particularly magazines.
The argument for the immediacy of television will be made irrelevant by the Netronews provider that can give constantly updated, in-depth coverage. Data compression will allow these information providers to provide visual and audio information with the stories. With the powerful hardware encoding devices now available video and audio can be encoded in real-time providing live streaming of a "broadcast." An example of the value of the immediacy that online newspapers now enjoy is in the event of local school closings. It seems insignificant but, when an area is experiencing inclement weather the online paper can list the school closings. Now the young masses can click on the list of closings and know immediately if they have school. This makes the information available immediately upon the request of the client. This is one of the great features of Netronews. This principal will be applied all aspects of the new media.
Negroponte discussed the personalized electronic newspaper of the future. It would know what layout the client wanted and would appear in the desired format upon download to the reading device. This is an important part of the Netronews offering. The client will decide between a passive or an active news receiving experience. In addition, they must have their news viewer preferences set for video, audio, spoken text, or three dimensional representation. Of course there will be a default news summary package for those that want to enjoy a passive news experience. This passive news experience may stir the user because of a tragic crime story. Now the Netronews client can - if still connected to the serving source via a traditional cable method or some new airborne device - investigate this issue further. They can rifle through old stories and watch previous video clips on the story served on demand. Then virtually walk through a virtual reality representation of the crime scene to gain a better understanding of the events.
The Interactive News Experience
This scenario involves a fundamental technology that has never before been a major part of the news experience in America, a immediate two-way communication interaction. The server for the Netronews provider can respond instantly to a request for supplemental information on a particular story. No longer is the story limited to the space available on the newsprint of time left in the newscast. The view/reader can look through the archives of formerly reported information. The Netronews provider can also better serve its clients by keeping track of the type of stories that its viewer/readers seem to read most often.
In the "response room" clients can discuss the stories in a situation that resembles an Internet chat for those that prefer textual exchanges. Already there are news providers offering the client an opportunity to sound off on the issues. The CNN Interactive pages offer a feedback section that posts selected responses to reported stories (CNN WWW Feedback Form 1996). It’s not unlike the traditional letter to the editor but, it is immediate and can be quickly posted for the world to see. There are already responses to other user’s feedback the same day the story is reported. It’s easy to see how the opportunity for real-time interaction will satisfy a need for some.
For the more visually inclined the three dimensional, audio "response room" would allow the anonymous users to voice their opinions while seen by other users as a figure or character of their choosing. For the more confident the respondents the sounding board is the place to look at a video image of all the participants as you debate the days news. The possibilities for quick reader/viewer response polls are obvious.
The Netronews will be an interactive experience. The experience is going to be a sensory rich environment. Not an interactive clicking of buttons in a two dimensional environment but, much more. The advent of widely distributed virtual environments will allow the users to better understand the news event. News stories about crimes will allow the user to move through a three dimensional depiction of the crime scene. Or the user can navigate a three dimensional map of rain forest destruction.
A technology that gives a basic idea of these possibilities is VRML but, Netronews will offer much more. Advances in distributes virtual environments will include three dimensional audio. The user will better understand the environment with the inclusion of audio perception techniques. These realistic representations will help the "designers" of the news story report the story.
The New Division of Labor
This scenario creates a dilemma for the Netronews provider. The role of the editor will be redefined to that of a facilitator or a mediator. There will be no scarcity of space on the pages. The need to cut stories will be eliminated. The editor will be more of an organizer of the information, deciding what layer of electronic display mechanism the story will go into. The editor will also need to approve the video feeds that will be provided. This raises an interesting question about the traditional gatekeeping role of editor. The consumer will become the gatekeeper by deciding which information to download or browse. Sure, the editor will be able to decide what to offer on the server but, it would be foolish to not offer as wide a variety as possible so the consumer is pleased with the large selection. The editor will simply offer the "specials of the day" with a carefully organized hypertext list of related video, audio or text stories related to them.
Amidst all of this information someone will have to maintain quality. This will make the role of the media editor a crucial one. This idea was one of the key points made by senior editor for the New York Times, William G. Connolly. During his address at the 1995 National Newspaper Copy Editors Conference he told the editors gathered that in light of all of the changes facing newspapers they were one group that didn’t have to worry about their jobs. It was a wise analysis and a reassuring one for those present. The way that they go about their job may change but they will remain an integral part of a team. This team of information editors will include specialists in the presentation other media as well.
The textual news providers, audio providers, video providers, graphics designers, and virtual environment designers are going to have to work in unison, much like a newspaper reporter calls upon the graphics department to create graphics for a story. The reporters and editors will remain an important part of the news team but, they will share their role with a variety of professionals that will augment their work to meet the demands of the Netronews audience.
Conclusions
The result of the Web and its ability to distribute data will create this new era for information providers. The Netronews media source is going to force change upon the news media but, only at the level that the user will accept it. The changes that come will be tempered by our fondness for experiences and interfaces that we recognize and are comfortable with. The reality is that all those involved with communications will have to adapt to the changing expectations of the audience. This Netronews paradigm will demand two-way interaction and the rich sensory experiences that the World Wide Web will make a reality.
Tradition media will not be eliminated by the Web. There is a distinct difference between what a user is seeking from entertainment and what he or she desires from news. There is a gray area involving entertainment masquerading as news but, this fall sunder the entertainment category. The individual who seeks news does so to satisfy specific needs to know. They desire information. When one tunes into a television sitcom it is entertainment they seek. While the Web can certainly provide entertainment, there will always be a desire for a passive viewing experience like that offered by television.
The Web isn’t very portable right now. There aren’t too many convenient, airborne, inexpensive Web connections currently available. This gives radio news a nice niche for the time being. It allows us get information for free while leaving us available to do other things. There aren’t any Web viewing devices that one can fold up and carry around all day and then unfold into a large display of information. Although, Negroponte thinks that there soon will be such a device. If there were, it probably wouldn’t be good to spill coffee on or line a bird cage with. This reserves a temporary place for newspapers.
There are certain things that the Web does well. It’s greatest attribute is its two-way interactivity. The ability to inquire, investigate, pursue, and interact is what will make it the primary news source for the world. Those who seek information can gain it in a personalized fashion. In the near future it will offer at least the sensory level available from television and likely much more. This is going to lead to a more satisfying news gathering experience.
This Netronews revolution won’t happen overnight. For those who work with networked computers it may feel that way but, the digitization and inter-connecting of the world is going to take time. When it does come, those that are hungry for information will be drawn to it. How complete a news source the Web will be and what the experience will be like depends on the technology and the world’s acceptance of it. Whatever the case, the Web is going to shape the way the world sees itself.