Federalism, ethnic conflict and the politics of national reconciliation - general studies and sources
Websites/Multiple Documents
| Title: | | Burma Lawyers' Council website |
| Description/subject: | | Contains a number of Burma law-related documents including the BLC journal of "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" (English) and "Journal of Constitutional Affairs" (Burmese) as well as texts in English and/or Burmese of laws/decrees, constitutions and associated documents. The BLC site is down at the moment (permanently?) but the BLC archive is acessible to 2011 in Archive.org via the primary link here. |
| Language: | | English, Burmese |
| Source/publisher: | | Burma Lawyers' Council (BLC) |
| Format/size: | | html |
| Alternate URLs: | | http://www.blc-burma.org/ |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 June 2003 |
|
| Title: | | Council for Democracy in Burma |
| Description/subject: | | "The next generation of leadership for a truly democratic Burma." |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | Council for Democracy in Burma |
| Format/size: | | html |
| Date of entry/update: | | 17 May 2012 |
|
| Title: | | The Forum of Federations, |
| Description/subject: | | "The Forum of Federations, “an international network on federalism”, seeks to
strengthen democratic governance by promoting dialogue on and understanding of
the values, practices, principles, and possibilities of federalism..."
Includes a link to the International Conference on Federalism, St Gallen, Switzerland, August 2002. |
| Language: | | English |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 June 2003 |
|
Individual Documents
| Title: | | From Kings, Colonies and Nations: Lessons from Ethiopia in Building Multination Federalism in Burma |
| Date of publication: | | 2009 |
| Description/subject: | | A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of Bachelor of Arts (Hons) in Political Studies, the University of Auckland, 2009....Abstract:
"This study evaluates whether the adoption of an ethnic-based federal system in
Burma, as proposed by core opposition groups, could lead to a sustainable peace after
the end of the military dictatorship. This is approached through a comparison with
Ethiopia. Ethiopia was chosen because it is the only recent example of an attempt to
establish a fully ethnic-based federal system after a civil war. A critical examination of
Ethiopian and Burmese histories highlights key problems arising from competing
narratives of state and nation, which question the basis of the two countries. An
inability to address this crisis of state identity and history is a key factor in sustaining
separatist conflict in Ethiopia, despite the remaking of the state into a multination
federation that provides constitutional guarantees for ethnic self-determination. A
similar problem seems likely arise in Burma during and after a democratic transition if
questions of history and state identity are not addressed. Another key lesson from the
Ethiopian experience is the possibility of territorial federalism contributing to a further
ethnicisation of conflicts over land and resources, a problem that might be alleviated
through non-territorial autonomy. Multination federalism may offer an alternative
solution to the problem of protection for minority groups in countries like Burma and
Ethiopia that have already experienced the trauma of failed nation-building projects.
But lessons from the failings of Ethiopian federalism suggest the need for further
measures to prevent violent disintegration in Burma if this direction is pursued there." |
| Author/creator: | | David Fisher Gilbert |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | University of Auckland |
| Format/size: | | pdf (2.1MB) |
| Date of entry/update: | | 11 August 2012 |
|
| Title: | | How not to Grant Autonomy |
| Date of publication: | | June 2006 |
| Description/subject: | | A remote republic within Russia provides a lesson to Burma on how not to federate along ethnic lines...
"Of the many oddities that Russia inherited from the erstwhile Soviet Union, this must be the most peculiar: the Jewish Autonomous Region of Birobidzhan. Located in a remote corner of the Russian Far East, it’s as far from the Land of Canaan as one could possibly get, but there it is, wedged between the Chinese border and the mountains of Khabarovsky Territory. And strange as it may seem, there may be a distant parallel with Burma’s ethnic minority situation..." |
| Author/creator: | | Bertil Lintner |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | "The Irrawaddy" Vol. 14, No. 6 |
| Format/size: | | html |
| Date of entry/update: | | 29 December 2006 |
|
| Title: | | Divide or Rule |
| Date of publication: | | April 2005 |
| Description/subject: | | "As the recent arrest of key Shan figures casts a cloud over the National Convention’s attempts at national integration, ethnic minority in-fighting continues to play into Rangoon’s hands
Shan leaders gathered in Taunggyi on February 7 (Shan State Day) to discuss the formation of a united Burma, a “genuine federal union” in which all ethnic groups would enjoy equal rights. Also attending the meeting were prominent Burmese and Shan politicians, together with members of various quasi-political bodies including ceasefire groups.
SNLD members at the National Convention in 1993
Long suspicious of Shan breakaway movements and anxious not to distract from the constitution-drafting National Convention’s reconvening on February 17, the military government moved in and over the next few days arrested several key figures. Among those taken into custody were 82-year-old leading Shan politician Shwe Ohn, Sao Hso Ten, president of Shan State Peace Council, and Hkun Htun Oo and Sai Nyunt Lwin, chairman and secretary respectively of the Shan National League for Democracy, the second largest vote getter in the 1990 election..." |
| Author/creator: | | Nandar Chann |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | "The Irrawaddy" Vol. 13, No. 4 |
| Format/size: | | html |
| Date of entry/update: | | 27 April 2006 |
|
| Title: | | Ein Schritt in die richtige Richtung? Das Nationale Versöhnungsprogramm. |
| Date of publication: | | March 2005 |
| Description/subject: | | Die Initiative ethnischer Oppositionspolitiker von 1999 zielt auf die verstärkte Zusammenarbeit von bewaffneten und politischen Minderheitenorganisationen in Burma ab. Die Autorin fragt, ob sie die Chance hat, dem Ver-söhnungsprozess eine neue Qualität zu geben. National Reconciliation Programme, co-operation between ceasefire, non-ceasefire groups and political parties |
| Author/creator: | | Ulrike Bey |
| Language: | | Deutsch, German |
| Source/publisher: | | südostasien Jg. 2005, Nr. 1, Asienhaus |
| Format/size: | | pdf |
| Date of entry/update: | | 10 June 2005 |
|
| Title: | | Burmese Politics and the Broken Unity |
| Date of publication: | | May 2002 |
| Description/subject: | | "Recognizing Burma's diversity is the first step to achieving real unity.
"I have always wanted to see unity," declared Burma's opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi in a recent interview with The Irrawaddy shortly after her release from house arrest. She was addressing the notion of unity among opposition groups within and outside the country, which in her eyes, are in disarray. Certainly, the current fragmentation among opposition groups does not bode well for democracy in Burma..." |
| Author/creator: | | Aung Naing Oo |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | "The Irrawaddy" Vol. 10, No. 4, May 2002 |
| Format/size: | | html |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 June 2003 |
|
| Title: | | Burma's Ethnic Problem is Constitutional |
| Date of publication: | | April 2002 |
| Description/subject: | | Federalism in Burma: "...Has Burma really been on the brink of fragmentation since independence? Are
the ethnic nationalities and the politics of ethnicity the root cause of the problem? Was General Ne Win correct when he
claimed in 1962 that he had to seize state power to prevent Burma from disintegration? The current State Peace and
Development Council also claims that there are 135 languages and 8 major races in Burma requiring a strong centralized
military to keep the country together. Is this true? ..." |
| Author/creator: | | Harn Yawnghwe and B. K. Sen |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 11 (Burma Lawyers' Council) |
| Format/size: | | PDF |
| Alternate URLs: | | The original and authoritative version of this article may be found in "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 11 at
http://www.blc-burma.org/activity_pub_liob.html |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 June 2003 |
|
| Title: | | Federalism and Self-Determination: Some Reflections |
| Date of publication: | | April 2002 |
| Description/subject: | | Federalism in Burma:
"Federalism has, for many decades now, been seen an answer to the challenges posed by multi-ethnic societies the world over.
In some cases, the idea has worked, while in others it manifestly has not. Where it has failed, the reasons have often lain as
much with human deficiencies as with systemic shortcomings..." |
| Author/creator: | | Venkat Iyer |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 11 (Burma Lawyers' Council) |
| Format/size: | | PDF |
| Alternate URLs: | | The original and authoritative version of this article may be found in "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 11 at
http://www.blc-burma.org/activity_pub_liob.html |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 June 2003 |
|
| Title: | | Federalism as a Solution to the Ethnic Problem in Burma |
| Date of publication: | | April 2002 |
| Description/subject: | | Federalism in Burma: "From January 4, 1948, the day the Union of Burma came into existence as an independent nation, the people and their leaders
have been divided over how to achieve national unity and structure their state. Until 1988, it was federal in name and theory,
but unitary in practice. After five decades of political discussion, peaceful movements for secession or autonomy and warfare,
the majority Burmans and most of the ethnic minorities remain disunited. From time to time efforts have been made by the
Government of Burma and the minorities, either alone or in groups, to end revolt and disunity, but none have succeeded.
Today, the basic problem is the same as the one the nation's founding fathers faced fifty years ago: how to construct a political
system wherein diverse peoples feel free and equal, able to govern themselves in their own areas, protect and preserve their
languages, cultures and traditions, while at the same time give their political loyalty to the nationstate..." |
| Author/creator: | | Josef Silverstein |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 11 (Burma Lawyers' Council) |
| Format/size: | | PDF |
| Alternate URLs: | | The original and authoritative version of this article may be found in "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 11 at
http://www.blc-burma.org/activity_pub_liob.html |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 June 2003 |
|
| Title: | | Federalism With A New Twist: Burma's Only Option |
| Date of publication: | | April 2002 |
| Description/subject: | | Federalism in Burma:
"The author of the article "The Panglong Spirit Lives On" (Chao-Tzang Yawnghwe in The Irrawaddy, July 2001) argued that the
guiding principle of the Panglong Accord is "unity in diversity". He raised the question as to whether there is a formula for
ending Burma's decades of ethnic strife, and answered it himself with "Yes, and it is none other than the political vision that
brought modern Burma into existence half a century ago".
This is begging the question: what is this political vision, which is abstract in terms of people's understanding? The meaning of
terminology such as "unity in diversity" is academically attractive, but in the understanding of the activists it helps little. However,
Yawnghwe retrieved much of the ground lost in the struggle evolving a viable concept for the establishment of a stable Burma
by stating that the major goal is the establishment of a democratic, federal Union of Burma, to be composed of self-determining
states living together in equality and peace. It is argued that core issues must be addressed, and the debate has to be brought to
a fruitful end..." |
| Author/creator: | | B. K. Sen |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 11 (Burma Lawyers' Council) |
| Format/size: | | PDF |
| Alternate URLs: | | The original and authoritative version of this article may be found in "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 11 at
http://www.blc-burma.org/activity_pub_liob.html |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 June 2003 |
|
| Title: | | Federalism, Burma and How The International Community Can Help |
| Date of publication: | | April 2002 |
| Description/subject: | | Federalism in Burma: "International Community can help via systematic study and consideration of the world's federations, in pursuit of an
understanding of what federalism can achieve when presented with a range of entrenched political and/ or ethnic problems. The
international community thus provides and becomes the backdrop, and the actor/ participants can research, inform, educate,
and consider whether and in what ways federalism can provide some solutions to the crisis of governance in which they
flounder.
Burma has never progressed past the polarised and prevailing view of federalism, yet for so long an aspiration of many of
Burma's leaders, notably the National Democratic Front (NDF) since its formation in 1976, and still today. 1 The United
Nationalities League for Democracy (UNLD) an umbrella political organisation of non-Burman nationalities that formed in 1989
likewise embraces federalism as a path to political, therefore constitutional settlement, that will bring peace and prosperity. 2
Until the political actors in and of Burma have this debate, its ability to resolve its political differences by political means to
effect a constitutional settlement will elude them. National reconciliation will remain a catch cry..." |
| Author/creator: | | Janelle Saffin |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 11 (Burma Lawyers' Council) |
| Format/size: | | PDF |
| Alternate URLs: | | http://www.blc-burma.org/activity_pub_liob.html |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 June 2003 |
|
| Title: | | Federalism: Putting Burma Back Together Again |
| Date of publication: | | April 2002 |
| Description/subject: | | Federalism in Burma: "This paper deals with the absence or the non-existence of a functional relation between the state in Burma and broader society
which is also made up of non-Burman 1 ethnic segments that inhabit the historical-territorial units comprising the Union of
Burma. 2
Introduction: Putting the Country Back Together Again
The paper looks into the problems related to the task, as yet to be accomplished, of "putting the country back together again",
in contrast to the claim of the military and its state is "keeping the country together". It is here argued that although the military
has, in a manner of speaking, "kept the country together", it has also distorted the relation between the state in Burma and
broader society by monopolizing power and excluding societal elements and forces from the sphere of the state and from the
political arena. The military's centralist, unitary impulse, informed by it ethnocentric (Burmanization) national unity formula, has
contributed to a dysfunctional state-society relation, that has in turn brought about the present crisis of decay and general
breakdown, making Burma a failed state..." |
| Author/creator: | | Chao-Tzang Yawnghwe |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 11 (Burma Lawyers' Council) |
| Format/size: | | PDF |
| Alternate URLs: | | http://www.blc-burma.org/activity_pub_liob.html |
| Date of entry/update: | | 15 July 2010 |
|
| Title: | | In Search of a Constitution for Burma |
| Date of publication: | | April 2002 |
| Description/subject: | | Federalism in Burma: "Constitution can be a strong foundation for every country to be established as a just, free, peaceful and developed society.
Burma is in the process of producing a new constitution. By amalgamating lessons from previous historical experiences and
current practical situation of the country, it is hoped that a proper constitution for future Burma might be produced.
Major concern is that without finding ways and means to resolve the underlying issues of a country, production of constitution
superficially is meaningless and constitution might not be effective from positive aspect in our future society. In this account, the
constitution making process or the way, how a constitution will be produced, is of paramount importance. In attempting to
produce a constitution, onesided or unproper guidance to the people should be avoided. In a genuine constitution making
process, the people, regardless of race, social origin, gender and etc, should be allowed to uncover their sufferings frankly,
propose possible solutions positively, and express their will to restructure the society freely thereby leading the process to be
more and more participatory. Any kind of discrimination should not be exercised within a genuine constitution making process
whether be it federal or state constitution making processes..." |
| Author/creator: | | Aung Htoo |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 11 (Burma Lawyers' Council) |
| Format/size: | | PDF |
| Alternate URLs: | | http://www.blc-burma.org/activity_pub_liob.html |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 June 2003 |
|
| Title: | | Interview With Sao Seng Suk |
| Date of publication: | | April 2002 |
| Description/subject: | | Federalism in Burma:
(Sao Seng Suk is the Chairman of the Shan State Constitution Drafting Committee. Following is a literal transcript of the
interview he had with U Aung Htoo and B. K. Sen).
"Do you consider the constitution to be the core issue in a peaceful political settlement in Burma?"
Sao Seng Suk: "Yes, I certainly do. Because all problems arose since Pyidaungzu was established in 1947 from the then
constitution. If all accept democratic constitution, historical problems can be settled peacefully and the country rebuilt according
to constitution, as there will be many kinds of freedom, freedom of expression, freedom of activities, etc."
"What type of Constitution will be viable?"
Sao Seng Suk: "Federal type constitution, federal is suitable for us..." |
| Author/creator: | | U Aung Htoo, B. K. Sen |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 11 (Burma Lawyers' Council) |
| Format/size: | | PDF |
| Alternate URLs: | | The original and authoritative version of this article may be found in "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 11 at
http://www.blc-burma.org/activity_pub_liob.html |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 June 2003 |
|
| Title: | | Burma and National Reconciliation: Ethnic Conflict and State-Society Dysfunction |
| Date of publication: | | December 2001 |
| Description/subject: | | It is maintained that Burma’s ethnic conflict’ is not per se ethnic, nor that of the kind faced by indigenous peoples of, for
example, North America, but a conflict rooted in politics. Following the collapse of Burma’s General Ne Win’s
military-socialist regime in 1988, the issue of ethnic conflict has attracted the attention from both observers and protagonists.
This attention became heightened following the unraveling of the socialist bloc and the emergence of ethnic wars in those
hitherto (presumed) stable socialist nation-states. |
| Author/creator: | | Chao-Tzang Yawnghwe |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 10 (Burma Lawyers' Council) |
| Alternate URLs: | | The original (and authoritative) version of this article may be found in http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/Legal_Issues_on%20Burma_Journal_10.pdf |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 August 2004 |
|
| Title: | | Secession and Self-Determination in the Context of Burma's Transition |
| Date of publication: | | December 2001 |
| Description/subject: | | "The word 'secession' has originated from the concept of 'self-determination'. Apart from its historical context,
'self-determination' can also be seen in its plain meaning. The Oxford Dictionary defines 'self-determination as, 'The right of a
nation or people to decide what form of government it will have or whether it will be independent of another country or not'.
The second part of this definition is easy to understand. A nation or people has the right to be independent of another country
when under subjugation of that country. But sometimes it is difficult to determine whether a nation striving for selfdetermination
is actually a nation..." |
| Author/creator: | | B.K. Sen |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 10 (Burma Lawyers' Council) |
| Alternate URLs: | | The original (and authoritative) version of this article may be found in http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/Legal_Issues_on%20Burma_Journal_10.pdf |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 June 2003 |
|
| Title: | | Federalism and Burma |
| Date of publication: | | August 2001 |
| Description/subject: | | "Despite the fact that Burma has a highly centralized unitary government system, the issue of federalism has been a major source
of debate for decades. Ever since the formation of the independence movement, the various ethnic groups in Burma have wanted
to transform the country into a federal union based on equality. The Panglong Agreement1 provided the basic foundation for this,
but post-independence Burma did not become a federal union in spite of the urgent need for this.
The non-Burman 2 ethnic groups in Burma have not given up their demands for federalism. Most of them are still engaged in
insurgency movements against the central government,3 which has been dominated by Burmans since 1948. The ethnic
insurgency movements emerged as a result of the government’s failure to deal with the demand for federalism peacefully. The
non-Burman movement for federalism and political equality (the Federal Movement’) has consistently tried to resolve the issue
peacefully. The non-Burman ethnic groups even participated in the 1990 elections, with federalism as their main motive. In the
elections, the UNLD (United Nationalities’ League for Democracy, the alliance of ethnic parties in Burma) occupied the second
largest number of seats after the NLD (National League for Democracy). However, federalism does not mean anything to the
non-Burman groups unless the right to self-determination, including the right to secession, is part of it..." |
| Author/creator: | | Khin Maung Win |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | "Legal Issues on Burma Journal" No. 9 (Burma Lawyers' Council) |
| Alternate URLs: | | The original (and authoritative) version of this article may be found in "Legal issues of Burma Journal" No. 9 at http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/Legal%20Issues%20on%20Burma%20Journal%209.pdf |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 June 2003 |
|
| Title: | | Issues of self-determination in Burma |
| Date of publication: | | April 2000 |
| Description/subject: | | "This paper seeks to provide an introduction to the concept of self-determination, and to suggest the importance of this concept
in Burma. A comprehensive analysis of either topic is beyond the scope of this paper, which is aimed at readers without great
familiarity with either area. Suggestions for further reading may be found in the references.
The paper begins by discussing the concept of self-determination, and its varied meanings. A brief history of the development of
the concept follows, in which the meaning of self-determination beyond decolonisation is touched upon. The situation of
minorities within a state is then considered. The second section of the paper is a discussion of the particular case of Burma..." |
| Author/creator: | | Louise Southalan |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | Legal Issues on Burma Journal No. 5 (Burma Lawyers' Council) |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 June 2003 |
|
| Title: | | Federalism and the Protection of Minority Rights: Some lessons for a new democratic Burma |
| Date of publication: | | October 1999 |
| Description/subject: | | "...federalism offers the best hope of creating a more stable and harmonious polity, especially in
societies such as Burma that are deeply divided along ethnic lines. The architects of a new democratic Burma would do well to
embrace this concept - with all its promise and all its challenges - but they need to work very hard to ensure that any future
Burmese federation lives up to the high expectations of the Burmese peoples. Not only will the balance between unity and
diversity have to be struck with a great deal of pragmatism, but every effort will have to be made to secure the widest possible
consensus on the terms of the new federal settlement. More importantly still, no one should be left in any doubt as to the
continuing price that every man, woman and child across the land would have to pay - in terms of patience, vigilance, tolerance
and co-operation - to make federalism a success..." |
| Author/creator: | | Dr. Venkat Iyer |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | Legal Issues on Burma Journal No. 4 (Burma Lawyers' Council) |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 June 2003 |
|
| Title: | | Federalism: The best option for national reconciliation and peace in Burma |
| Date of publication: | | October 1999 |
| Description/subject: | | "...Federalism has made democracy more viable by providing a way for ethnic, religious, racial and linguistic communities to
benefit from political and economic union while retaining considerable autonomy, self-government and communal identity.1 Our
history has proven that a unitary or quasi-federal system is inefficient in bringing about peace and prosperity. Genuine federalism
is the best option to bring about national reconciliation and pave the way for rebuilding Burma as a modern nation..." |
| Author/creator: | | Dr. Thaung Htun |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | Legal Issues on Burma Journal No. 4 (Burma Lawyers' Council) |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 June 2003 |
|
| Title: | | The Pyidaungzu, Federalism and Burman Elites: A Brief Analysis |
| Date of publication: | | May 1999 |
| Description/subject: | | Drafting a constitution in Burma.
"Federalism is not quite understood in Burma. In fact, it would not be wrong to say it is grossly misunderstood by -- among
many others -- the Burman population segment, or at least by its armed elites (or elites in uniform).
To armed Burman elites, Federalism is synonomous with the destruction or the disintegration of the Union. The
Burman-dominated military led by General Ne Win introduced and entrenched this idea when they usurped power in 1962..." |
| Author/creator: | | Chao-Tzang Yawnghwe |
| Language: | | English |
| Source/publisher: | | Legal Issues on Burma Journal No. 3 (Burma Lawyers' Council) |
| Format/size: | | html |
| Date of entry/update: | | 03 August 2004 |
|
| Title: | | Shan Federal Proposal, 1961 |
| Date of publication: | | 25 February 1962 |
| Description/subject: | | Document containing proposals For the REVISION of the CONSTITUTION OF THE UNION OF BURMA submitted by THE SHAN STATE, translated by Sao Singha. This document was ratified by the Convention, attended by delegates from the entire Shan State, which was held in Taunggyi on Saturday, 25th of February, 1961. |
| Language: | | English |
| Format/size: | | html |
| Date of entry/update: | | 08 December 2010 |
|
| Title: | | HISTORISCHE ENTWICKLUNG DER ETHNISCHEN KONFLIKTE IN MYANMAR / BURMA |
| Description/subject: | | Vor der Ankunft der britischen Kolonialmacht waren die burmanischen Königreiche zwar die dominierende politische Kraft, ihre Herrschaft über die Minderheiten blieb aber beschränkt. Zu keinem Zeitpunkt in der vorkolonialen Geschichte bemühten sich die Monarchen darum, die Minderheiten unter Zwang zu assimilieren. Politisch relevant wurde die ethnische Zugehörigkeit erst unter der britischen Kolonialherrschaft, als das Land in das direkt verwaltete Burma proper (Burma an sich) und in die indirekt verwalteten frontier areas (Grenzgebiete), das vornehmliche Siedlungsgebiet der Minderheiten, geteilt wurde. Karen (KNU); Panglong-Abkommen; Waffenstillstandsabkommen; History of ethnic conflicts in Burma; Karen (KNU); Panglong-Agreement; Ceasefire Agreements; |
| Author/creator: | | Heike Löschmann |
| Source/publisher: | | Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung |
| Format/size: | | Html (25k) |
| Date of entry/update: | | 19 October 2007 |
|
|