Article 24845 of rec.woodworking:
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From: clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca (Chris Lewis)
Newsgroups: misc.consumers.house,rec.woodworking,sci.electronics,news.answers,misc.answers,rec.answers,sci.answers
Subject: Electrical Wiring FAQ [Part 1/2]
Summary: A series of questions and answers about house wiring
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Date: 6 Oct 93 05:40:21 GMT
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Archive-name: electrical-wiring/part1
Last-modified: Tue Aug 31 01:33:25 EDT 1993

	    Frequently Asked Questions on Electrical Wiring

		Steven Bellovin (smb@research.att.com)
		Chris Lewis (clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca)

	    Comments to (automatic if you reply to this article):
		    wirefaq@ferret.ocunix.on.ca

This FAQ is formatted as a digest.  Most news readers can
skip from one question to the next by pressing ^G.

Answers to many other topics related to houses can be obtained from
the misc.consumers.house archive; send an empty piece of mail to
house-archive@dg-rtp.dg.com for information.

Changes to previous issue marked with "|" in left column.  Watch
particularly for "NEW" in the Questions list for new or substantively
changed answers.  "g^|" will get you to the changed sections quickly
in most newsreaders.

Note that this is now a registered FAQ - cross-posted to news.answers
and appears in the FAQ list of lists, and is ftpable from rtfm.mit.edu.

Meta changes: now posted to sci.electronics and sci.ansewrs.  Has been
broken into two parts.  It was getting large.

Subject: Questions answered in this FAQ

	Introduction/Disclaimers
	What is the NEC?  Where can I get a copy?
	What is the CEC?  Where can I get a copy?
	Can I do my own wiring?  Extra pointers?
	What do I need in the way of tools?
	What is UL listing?
	What is CSA approval?
	Are there any cheaper, easier to read books on wiring?
	Inspections how and what?  Why should I get my wiring inspected?
	My house doesn't meet some of these rules and regulations.
	A word on voltages: 110/115/117/120/125/220/240
	What does an electrical service look like?
	What is a circuit?
	"grounding" versus "grounded" versus "neutral".
	What does a fuse or breaker do?  What are the differences?
	Breakers?  Can't I use fuses?
	What size wire should I use?
	Where do these numbers come from?
	What does "14-2" mean?
	What is a "wirenut"/"marrette"/"marr connector".  How are they used?
	What is a GFI/GFCI?
	Where should GFCIs be used?
	Where shouldn't I use a GFCI?
	What is the difference between a GFCI outlet and a GFCI breaker?
	What's the purpose of the ground prong on an outlet, then?
	Why is one prong wider than the other?  Polarization
	How do I convert two prong receptacles to three prong?
	Surges, spikes, zaps, grounding and your electronics
	Are you sure about GFCIs and ungrounded outlets?
	    Should the test button work?
	What kind of outlets do I need in a kitchen?
	Where must outlets and switches be in bathrooms?
	General outlet placement rules/line capacities
	What is Romex/NM/NMD?  What is BX?  When should I use each?
	Should I use plastic or metal boxes?
	Junction box positioning?
	Can I install a replacement fixture?
	Noisy fluorescent fixtures, what do I do?
	What does it mean when the lights brighten when a motor starts?
	What is 3 phase power?  Should I use it?  Can I get it in my house?
	Is it better to run motors at 110 or 220?
	What is this nonsense about 3HP on 110V 15A circuits?
	How should I wire my shop?
	Underground wiring
	Doorbell/telephone/cable other service wiring hints
	Aluminum wiring
	I'm buying a house!  What should I do?
	What is this weird stuff?  Old style wiring
	Where do I buy stuff?
	Copper wire characteristics table


Subject: Introduction/Disclaimers

	Although we've done a fair bit of wiring, we are not
	electricians, and we cannot be responsible for what you do.  If
	you're at all uncertain about what is correct or safe, *don't
	do it*.  Contact someone qualified -- a licensed electrician,
	or your local electrical inspector.  Electricity is no joke;
	mistakes can result in shocks, fires, or electrocution.

	Furthermore, our discussion is based on the U.S. National
	Electrical Code (NEC) and the Canadian Electrical code (CEC).
	To the best of our abilities, we have confirmed every detail
	with the electrical code, but we don't quote sections
	simply to keep this thing readable.  If you think we're wrong,
	we invite you to correct us, but please - quote references!

	The NEC and the CEC do not, in and of themselves, have the
	force of law.  Many municipalities adopt it en toto.  Others,
	however, do not.  Check your with your local building
	department (and <provincial> Hydro Inspection Offices in
	Canada) to find out what applies in your area.  Also,
	your local electrical utility may also have special requirements
	for electrical service installation.  Bear in mind, too, that
	we say here applies primarily to ordinary single-family
	residences.  Multi-family dwellings, mobile homes, commercial
	establishments, etc., are sometimes governed by different
	rules.

	Also note that, contrary to popular belief in the U.S. (and in
	some parts of Canada), Canada is not a wholly-owned subsidiary
	of the U.S.  Consequently, the NEC does not apply in Canada.
	Lots of things are the same, including voltages, line
	frequencies, and the laws of physics.  But there are a number
	of crucial differences in the regulations.  Where we can, we've
	noted them, flagging the relevant passages with ``NEC'' or
	``CEC''.

	Remember that the CEC and NEC are minimal standards.  It is often
	smart to go beyond their minimal requirements.

Subject: What is the NEC?  Where can I get a copy?

	The NEC is a model electrical code devised and published by the
	National Fire Protection Association, an insurance industry group.
	It's revised every three years.  The 1993 version has been released.
	You can buy a copy at a decent bookstore, or by calling them directly
	at 800-344-3555.  The code exists in several versions.  There's the
	full text, which is fairly incomprehensible.  There's an abridged
	edition, which has only the sections likely to apply to most houses.
	And there's the NEC Handbook, which contains the ``authorized
	commentary'' on the code, as well as the full text.  That's the
	recommended version.  Unfortunately, there's no handbook for
	the abridged edition.  And the full handbook is expensive --
	US$65 plus shipping and handling.

Subject: What is the CEC?  Where can I get a copy?

	The Canadian Standards Association is an organization made up
	of various government agencies, power utilities, insurance
	companies, electrical manufacturers and other organizations.
	The CSA publishes CSA Standard C22.1 which is updated every two
	or three years.  Each province adopts, with some amendments,
	this standard and publishes a province-specific code book.
	Since each province publishes its own slightly modified
	standard, it would be somewhat confusing to obtain the CSA
	standard itself.  In this FAQ, "CEC" really means the
	appropriate provincial standard.  In particular, this FAQ is
	derived from the Ontario Hydro Electrical Safety Code, 20th
	edition (1990).  Which is in turn based on CSA C22.1-1990 (16th
	edition).  While differences exist between the provinces, an
	attempt has been made to avoid specific-to-Ontario detail.

	The appropriate provincial code can be obtained from electrical
	inspection offices of your provincial power authority.  In
	Ontario, it's Ontario Hydro.  The Ontario Hydro book isn't
	overly fat.  It's about C$25, and includes mailed updates.  I
	hear that these standards are somewhat easier to read than the
	equivalent NEC publications.

	Don't bother asking in Quebec - DIY wiring is banned throughout
	the province.

Subject: Can I do my own wiring?  Extra pointers?

	In most places, homeowners are allowed to do their own wiring.
	In some, they're not.  Check with your local electrical
	inspector.  Most places won't permit you to do wiring on other's
	homes for money without a license.  Nor are you permitted to do
	wiring in "commercial" buildings.  Multiple dwellings (eg: duplexes)
	are usually considered "semi-commercial" or "commercial".  However,
	many jurisdictions will permit you to work on semi-commercial
	wiring if you're supervised by a licensed electrician - if you can
	find one willing to supervise.

	If you do your own wiring, an important point:

	Do it NEAT and WELL!  What you really want to aim for is a better
	job than an electrician will do.  After all, it's your own home,
	and it's you or your family that might get killed if you make
	a mistake.  An electrician has time pressures, has the skills
	and knows the tricks of the trade to do a fast, safe job.
	In this FAQ we've consciously given a few recommendations that
	are in excess of code, because we feel that it's reasonable,
	and will impress the inspector.

	The inspector will know that you're an amateur.  You have to
	earn his trust.  The best way of doing this is to spend your
	time doing as neat a job as possible.  Don't cut corners.
	Exceed specifications.  Otherwise, the inspector may get extremely
	picky and fault you on the slightest transgressions.

	Don't try to hide anything from the inspector.

	Use the proper tools.  Ie: don't use a bread knife to strip
	wires, or twist wires with your fingers.  The inspector
	won't like it, and the results won't be that safe.  And it
	takes longer.  And you're more likely to stick a hunk of
	12ga wire through your hand that way.

	Don't handle house wire when it's very cold (eg: below -10C
	or 16F).  Thermoplastic house wire, particularly older types
	become very brittle.

Subject: What do I need in the way of tools?

	First, there's the obvious -- a hammer, a drill, a few
	screwdrivers, both straight and Phillips-head.  If you're 
	lucky enough to live in Canada (or find a source of CSA-approved
	devices) you need Robertson ("square recess") screwdrivers
	(#1 and #2) instead of phillips.

	For drilling a few holes, a 3/4" or 1" spade bit and 1/4" or
	3/8" electric drill will do.  If you're doing a lot, or
	are working with elderly lumber, we recommend a 1/2" drill
	(right-angle drills are wonderful.  Can be rented) and
	3/4" or 1" screw-point auger drill bits.  These bits pull
	you through, so they're much faster and less fatiguing, even
	in 90 year old hardwood timbers.

	Screw-driver bits are useful for drills, expecially if you
	install your electrical boxes using screws (drywall screws
	work well).
	
	For stripping wire, use a real wire stripper, not a knife or
	ordinary wire cutters.  Don't buy the $3 K-mart "combo stripper,
	crimper and bottle opener" types.  You should expect to pay
	$15 to $20 for a good "plier-type" pair.  It will have sized
	stripping holes, and won't nick or grab the wire - it should
	be easy to strip wire with it.  One model has a small hole in the
	blade for forming exact wire loops for screw terminals.  There
	are fancier types (autostrip/cut), but they generally aren't
	necessary, and pros usually don't use them.

	A pair of diagonal side cutter pliers are useful for clipping ends
	in constricted places.  Don't use these for stripping wire.

	You will need linesman pliers for twisting wires for wire nuts.

	You should have a pair of needle-nose pliers for fiddling
	inside boxes and closing loops, but it's better to form wire
	loops with a "loop former hole" on your wire stripper - more
	accurate.

	If you're using non-metallic cable, get a cable stripper for
	removing the sheath.  Or, do what some pros do, they nick the
	end of the sheath, grab the ground wire with a pair of pliers,
	and simply rip the sheath back using the ground wire as a
	"zipper", and cut the sheath off.  You shouldn't try to strip
	the sheath with a knife point, because it's too easy to
	slash the insulation on the conductors.  Apparently Stanley
	utility knives fitted with linoleum cutters (hooked blades)
	can be used to strip sheath, but there is still the possibility
	that you'll gouge the conductors.

	For any substantial amount of work with armored cable, it's well
	worth your while to invest in a rotary cable splitter (~US$ 18).
	Hack saws are tricky to use without cutting into the wire
	or the insulation.

	Three-prong outlet testers are a quick check for properly-wired
	outlets.  About $6.  Multimeters tell you more, but are a lot more
	expensive, and probably not worth it for most people.  A simple
	voltage sensor, which can detect potential through an insulated
	wire not supplying any devices, is extremely helpful; they cost
	about US$ 10 at Radio Shack.

	You should have a voltage detector - to check that the wires are
	dead before doing work on them.  Neon-bulb version are cheap ($2-3)
	and work well.  If you get more serious, a "audible alarm" type is
	good for tracing circuits without a helper.  (Though I've been known
	to lock the drill on, and hit breakers until the scream stops ;-)

	For running wires through existing walls, you need fish tape.
	Often, two tapes are needed, though sometimes, a bent hanger or
	a length of thin chain will suffice.  Fish tapes can be rented.

	Electrical tape.  Lots of it ;-)  Seriously, a good and competent
	wiring job will need very little tape.  The tape is useful for
	wrapping dicy insulation in repair work.  Another use is to wrap 
	around the body of outlets and switches to cover the termination
	screws - I don't do this, but drywall contractors prefer it (to
	prevent explosions when the drywall knife collides with a live outlet
	that has no cover plate).

Subject: What is UL listing?

	The UL stands for "Underwriters Laboratory".  It used to be
	an Insurance Industry organization, but now it is independent
	and non-profit.  It tests electrical components and equipment
	for potential hazards.  When something is UL-listed, that means
	that the UL has tested the device, and it meets their requirements
	for safety - ie: fire or shock hazard.  It doesn't necessarily
	mean that the device actually does what it's supposed to, just
	that it probably won't kill you.

	The UL does not have power of law in the U.S. -- you are
	permitted to buy and install non-UL-listed devices.  However,
	insurance policies sometimes have clauses in them that will
	limit their liability in case of a claim made in response to
	the failure of a non-UL-listed device.  Furthermore, in
	many situations the NEC will require that a wiring component
	used for a specific purpose is UL-listed for that purpose.
	Indirectly, this means that certain parts of your wiring
	must be UL-listed before an inspector will approve it and/or
	occupancy permits issued.
	
Subject: What is CSA approval?

	Every electrical device or component must be certified by the
	Canadian Standards Association before it can be sold in
	Canada.  Implicit in this is that all wiring must be done
	with CSA-approved materials.  They perform testing similar to
	the UL (a bit more stringent), except that CSA approval is
	required by law.

	Again, like the UL, if a fire was caused by non-CSA-approved
	equipment, your insurance company may not have to pay the
	claim.

	Note: strictly speaking, there usually is a legal way around the
	lack of a CSA sticker.  In some cases (eg: Ontario), a local hydro
	inspection prior to purchase, or prior to use, is acceptable.
	The hydro inspector will affix a "hydro sticker" to the unit, which
	is as good as CSA approval.  But it costs money - last I knew,
	$75 per unit inspected.

	ULC (Underwriters Laboratory of Canada) is an independent organization
	that, amongst other things, undertakes the quarterly inspection of
	manufacturer's to ensure continued compliance of UL Listed/Recognized
	products to Agency reports and safety standards. This work is done under
	contract to UL Inc (Follow-up Services Division). They are not
	a branch or subsidiary of UL.




Subject: Are there any cheaper, easier to read books on wiring?

	USA: The following three books were suggested by our readers

	    Residential Wiring
	    by Jeff Markell,
	    Craftsman Books,
	    Carlsbad CA for $18.25. ISBN 0-934041-19-9.

	    Practical Electrical Wiring
	    Residential, Farm and Industrial,  Based on the National
	    Electrical Code    ANSI/NFPA 70
	    Herbert P. Richter and W. Creighton Schwan
	    McGraw-Hill Book Co.

	    Wiring Simplified
	    H. P. Richter and W. C. Schwan
	    Park Publishing Co.
	
	Try to make sure that the book is based on the latest NEC
	revision.  Which is currently 1993.

	Canada: P.S. Knight authors and publishes a book called
	"Electrical Code Simplified".  There appears to be a version
	published specific to each province, and is very tied into the
	appropriate provincial code.  It focuses on residential wiring,
	and is indispensible for Canadian DIY'ers.  It is better to get
	this book than the CEC unless you do a lot of wiring (or answer
	questions on the net ;-).

	It is updated each time the provincial codes are.  This book is
	available at all DIY and hardware stores for less than C$10.

Subject: Inspections how and what?  Why should I get my wiring inspected?

	Most jurisdictions require that you obtain a permit and
	inspections of any wiring that is done.  Amongst other more
	mundane bureaucratic reasons (like insurance companies not
	liking to have to pay claims), a permit and inspections
	provides some assurance that you, your family, your neighbors
	or subsequent owners of your home don't get killed or lose
	their homes one night due to a sloppy wiring job.

	Most jurisdictions have the power to order you to vacate your
	home, or order you to tear out any wiring done without a
	permit.  California, for instance, is particularly nasty about
	this.

	If fire starts in your home, and un-inspected wiring is at
	fault, insurance companies will often refuse to pay the damage
	claims.

	In general, the process goes like this:
		- you apply to your local inspections office or building
		  department for a permit.  You should have a sketch or
		  detailed drawing of what you plan on doing.  This is
		  a good time to ask questions on any things you're not
		  sure of.  If you're doing major work, they may impose
		  special conditions on you, require loading
		  calculations and ask other questions.  At this point
		  they will tell you which inspections you will need.
		- If you're installing a main panel, you will need to
		  have the panel and service connections inspected
		  before your power utility will provide a connection.
		  This is sometimes done by the local power authority
		  rather than the usual inspectors.
		- After installing the boxes and wiring, but before
		  the insulation/walls go up, you will need a
		  "rough-in" inspection.
		- After the walls are up, and the wiring is complete,
		  you will need a "final inspection".

Subject: My house doesn't meet some of these rules and regulations.
	Do I have to upgrade?

	In general, there is no requirement to upgrade older dwellings,
	though there are some exceptions (ie: smoke detectors in some
	cases).  However, any new work must be done according to the
	latest electrical code.  Also, if you do ``major'' work, you
	may be required to upgrade certain existing portions or all
	of your system.  Check with your local electrical inspector.

Subject: A word on voltages: 110/115/117/120/125/220/240

	One thing where things might get a bit confusing is the
	different numbers people bandy about for the voltage of
	a circuit.  One person might talk about 110V, another 117V
	or another 120V.  These are all, in fact, exactly the same
	thing...  In North America the utility companies are required
	to supply a split-phase 240 volt (+-5%) feed to your house.
	This works out as two 120V +- 5% legs.  Additionally, since there
	are resistive voltage drops in the house wiring, it's not
	unreasonable to find 120V has dropped to 110V or 240V has dropped
	to 220V by the time the power reaches a wall outlet.  Especially
	at the end of an extension cord or long circuit run.  For a number
	of reasons, some historical, some simple personal orneryness,
	different people choose call them by slightly different numbers.
	This FAQ has chosen to be consistent with calling them "110V" and
	"220V", except when actually saying what the measured voltage will
	be.  Confusing?  A bit.  Just ignore it.

	One thing that might make this a little more understandable
	is that the nameplates on equipment ofen show the lower (ie: 110V
	instead of 120V) value.  What this implies is that the device
	is designed to operate properly when the voltage drops that
	low.

	208V is *not* the same as 240V.  208V is the voltage between
	phases of a 3-phase "Y" circuit that is 120V from neutral to any
	hot.   480V is the voltage between phases of a 3-phase "Y"
	circuit that's 277V from hot to neutral.

	In keeping with 110V versus 120V strangeness, motors intended
	to run on 480V three phase are often labelled as 440V...

Subject: What does an electrical service look like?

	There are logically four wires involved with supplying the
	main panel with power.  Three of them will come from the utility
	pole, and a fourth (bare) wire comes from elsewhere.

 	The bare wire is connected to one or more long metal bars pounded
 	into the ground, or to a wire buried in the foundation, or sometimes
 	to the water supply pipe (has to be metal, continuous to where
	the main water pipe entering the house.  Watch out for galvanic
	action conductivity "breaks" (often between copper and iron pipe).
	This is the "grounding conductor".  It is there to make sure that
	the third prong on your outlets is connected to ground.  This wire
	normally carries no current.

	One of the other wires will be white (or black with white or
	yellow stripes, or sometimes simply black).  It is the neutral wire.
	It is connected to the "centre tap" (CEC; "center tap" in the
	NEC ;-) of the distribution transformer supplying the power.  It
	is connected to the grounding conductor in only one place (often
	inside the panel).  The neutral and ground should not be connected
	anywhere else.  Otherwise, weird and/or dangerous things may happen.

	Furthermore, there should only be one grounding system in
	a home.  Some codes require more than one grounding electrode.
	These will be connected together, or connected to the neutral
	at a common point - still one grounding system.  Adding additional
	grounding electrodes connected to other portions of the house
	wiring is unsafe and contrary to code.

	If you add a subpanel, the ground and neutral are usually
	brought as separate conductors from the main panel, and are
	not connected together in the subpanel (ie: still only one
	neutral-ground connection).  However, in some situations 
	(certain categories of separate buildings) you actually do
	have to provide a second grounding electrode - consult your
	inspector.

	The other two wires will usually be black, and are the "hot"
	wires.  They are attached to the distribution transformer as
	well.

	The two black wires are 180 degrees out of phase with each
	other.  This means if you connect something to both hot wires,
	the voltage will be 220 volts.  If you connect something to the
	white and either of the two blacks you will get 110V.

	Some panels seem to only have three wires coming into them.
	This is either because the neutral and ground are connected
	together at a different point (eg: the meter or pole) and one
	wire is doing dual-duty as both neutral and ground, or in some
	rare occasions, the service has only one hot wire (110V only
	service).

Subject: What is a circuit?

	Inside the panel, connections are made to the incoming wires.
	These connections are then used to supply power to selected
	portions of the home.  There are three different combinations:
		1) one hot, one neutral, and ground: 110V circuit.
		2) two hots, no neutral, and ground: 220V circuit.
		3) two hots, neutral, and ground: 220V circuit + neutral,
		   and/or two 110V circuits with a common neutral.

	(1) is used for most circuits supplying receptacles and
	lighting within your house.  (3) is usually used for supplying
	power to major appliances such as stoves, and dryers - they
	often have need for both 220V and 110V, or for bringing several
	circuits from the panel box to a distribution point.  (2) is
	usually for special 220V motor circuits, electric heaters, or
	air conditioners.

	[Note: In the US, the NEC frequently permits a circuit similar
	to (2) be used for stoves and dryers - namely, that there
	are two hot wires, and a wire that does dual duty as neutral
	and ground, and is connected to the frame as well as providing
	the neutral for 110V purposes - three prong plugs instead
	of four (*only* for stoves/dryers connected to the main panel.
	When connected to most sub-panels, 4 prong plugs and receptacles
	are required).  In our not-so-humble opinion this is crazy, but
	the NFPA claims that this practice was re-evaluated for the 1992 NEC,
	and found to be safe.  Check your local codes, or inquire as to
	local practice -- there are restrictions on when this is
	permissible.]

	(1) is usually wired with three conductor wire: black for hot,
	white for neutral, and bare for grounding.

	(2) and (3) have one hot wire coloured red, the other black, a
	bare wire for grounding, and in (3) a white wire for neutral.

	You will sometimes see (2) wired with just a black, white and ground
	wire.  Since the white is "hot" in this case, both the NEC and CEC
	requires that the white wire be "permanently marked" at the ends
	to indicate that it is a live wire.  Usually done with paint, nail
	polish or sometimes electrical tape.

	Each circuit is attached to the main wires coming into the
	panel through a circuit breaker or fuse.

	There are, in a few locales, circuits that look like (1), (2)
	or (3) except that they have two bare ground wires.  Some places
	require this for hot tubs and the like (one ground is "frame ground",
	the other attaches to the motor).  This may or may not be an
	alternative to GFCI protection.

Subject: "grounding" versus "grounded" versus "neutral".

	According to the terminology in the CEC and NEC, the
	"grounding" conductor is for the safety ground, i.e., the green
	or bare or green with a yellow stripe wire.  The word "neutral"
	is reserved for the white when you have a circuit with more than 
	one "hot" wire.  Since the white wire is connected to neutral and
	the grounding conductor inside the panel, the proper term is
	"grounded conductor".  However, the potential confusion between
	"grounded conductor" and "grounding conductor" can lead to
	potentially lethal mistakes - you should never use the bare wire
	as a "grounded conductor" or white wire as the "grounding conductor",
	even though they are connected together in the panel.

	[But not in subpanels - subpanels are fed neutral and ground
	separately from the main panel.  Usually.]

	Note: do not tape, colour or substitute other colour wires for the
	safety grounding conductor.

	In the trade, and in common usage, the word "neutral" is used
	for "grounded conductor".  This FAQ uses "neutral" simply to
	avoid potential confusion.  We recommend that you use "neutral"
	too.  Thus the white wire is always (except in some light
	switch applications) neutral.  Not ground.

Subject: What does a fuse or breaker do?  What are the differences?

	Fuses and circuit breakers are designed to interrupt the power
	to a circuit when the current flow exceeds safe levels.  For
	example, if your toaster shorts out, a fuse or breaker should
	"trip", protecting the wiring in the walls from melting.  As
	such, fuses and breakers are primarily intended to protect the
	wiring -- UL or CSA approval supposedly indicates that the
	equipment itself won't cause a fire.

	Fuses contain a narrow strip of metal which is designed to melt
	(safely) when the current exceeds the rated value, thereby
	interrupting the power to the circuit.  Fuses trip relatively
	fast.  Which can sometimes be a problem with motors which have
	large startup current surges.  For motor circuits, you can use
	a "time-delay" fuse (one brand is "fusetron") which will avoid
	tripping on momentary overloads.  A fusetron looks like a
	spring-loaded fuse.  A fuse can only trip once, then it must be
	replaced.

	Breakers are fairly complicated mechanical devices.  They
	usually consist of one spring loaded contact which is latched
	into position against another contact.  When the current flow
	through the device exceeds the rated value, a bimetallic strip
	heats up and bends.  By bending it "trips" the latch, and the
	spring pulls the contacts apart.  Circuit breakers behave
	similarly to fusetrons - that is, they tend to take longer to
	trip at moderate overloads than ordinary fuses.  With high
	overloads, they trip quickly.  Breakers can be reset a finite
	number of times - each time they trip, or are thrown
	when the circuit is in use, some arcing takes place, which
	damages the contacts.  Thus, breakers should not be used in
	place of switches unless they are specially listed for the
	purpose.

	Neither fuses nor breakers "limit" the current per se.  A dead
	short on a circuit can cause hundreds or sometimes even
	thousands of amperes to flow for a short period of time, which
	can often cause severe damage.

Subject: Breakers?  Can't I use fuses?

	Statistics show that fuse panels have a significantly higher
	risk of causing a fire than breaker panels.  This is usually
	due to the fuse being loosely screwed in, or the contacts
	corroding and heating up over time, or the wrong size fuse
	being installed, or the proverbial "replace the fuse with a
	penny" trick.

	Since breakers are more permanently installed, and have better
	connection mechanisms, the risk of fire is considerably less.

	Fuses are prone to explode under extremely high overload.  When
	a fuse explodes, the metallic vapor cloud becomes a conducting
	path.  Result?  From complete meltdown of the electrical panel,
	melted service wiring, through fires in the electrical
	distribution transformer and having your house burn down.
	[This author has seen it happen.]  Breakers won't do this.

	Many jurisdictions, particularly in Canada, no longer permit
	fuse panels in new installations.  The NEC does permit new
	fuse panels in some rare circumstances (requiring the special
	inserts to "key" the fuseholder to specific size fuses)

	Some devices, notably certain large air conditioners, require fuse
	protection in addition to the breaker at the panel.  The fuse
	is there to protect the motor windings from overload.  Check the
	labeling on the unit.  This is usually only on large permanently
	installed motors.  The installation instructions will tell you
	if you need one.

Subject: What size wire should I use?

	For a 20 amp circuit, use 12 gauge wire.  For a 15 amp circuit,
	you can use 14 gauge wire (in most locales).  For a long run,
	though, you should use the next larger size wire, to avoid
	voltage drops.  12 gauge is only slightly more expensive than
	14 gauge, though it's stiffer and harder to work with.

	Here's a quick table for normal situations.  Go up a size for
	more than 100 foot runs, when the cable is in conduit, or
	ganged with other wires in a place where they can't dissipate
	heat easily:

		Gauge		Amps
		14		15
		12		20
		10		30
		8		40
		6		65
	
	We don't list bigger sizes because it starts getting very dependent
	on the application and precise wire type.

Subject: Where do these numbers come from?

	There are two considerations, voltage drop and heat buildup.
	The smaller the wire is, the higher the resistance is.  When
	the resistance is higher, the wire heats up more, and there is
	more voltage drop in the wiring.  The former is why you need
	higher-temperature insulation and/or bigger wires for use in
	conduit; the latter is why you should use larger wire for long
	runs.

	Neither effect is very significant over very short distances.
	There are some very specific exceptions, where use of smaller
	wire is allowed.  The obvious one is the line cord on most
	lamps.  Don't try this unless you're certain that your use fits
	one of those exceptions; you can never go wrong by using larger
	wire.

Subject: What does "14-2" mean?

	This is used to describe the size and quantity of conductors
	in a cable.  The first number specifies the gauge.  The second
	the number of current carrying conductors in the wire - but
	remember there's usually an extra ground wire.  "14-2" means
	14 gauge, two insulated current carrying wires, plus bare ground.

	-2 wire usually has a black, white and bare ground wire.  Sometimes
	the white is red instead for 220V circuits without neutral.  In
	the latter case, the sheath is usually red too.

	-3 wire usually has a black, red, white and bare ground wire.
	Usually carrying 220V with neutral.

Subject: What is a "wirenut"/"marrette"/"marr connector"?  How are they
	used?

	A wire nut is a cone shaped threaded plastic thingummy that's used
	to connect wires together.  "Marrette" or "Marr connector"
	are trade names.  You'll usually use a lot of them in DIY wiring.

	In essence, you strip the end of the wires about an inch, twist them
	together, then twist the wirenut on.

	Though some wirenuts advertise that you don't need to twist the
	wire, do it anyways - it's more mechanically and electrically
	secure.

	There are many different sizes of wire nut.  You should check
	that the wire nut you're using is the correct size for the
	quantity and sizes of wire you're connecting together.

	Don't just gimble the wires together with a pair of pliers or
	your fingers.  Use a pair of blunt nose ("linesman") pliers,
	and carefully twist the wires tightly and neatly.  Sometimes
	it's a good idea to trim the resulting end to make sure it
	goes in the wirenut properly.

	Some people wrap the "open" end of the wirenut with electrical
	tape.  This is probably not a good idea - the inspector may
	tear it off during an inspection.  It's usually done because
	a bit of bare wire is exposed outside the wire nut - instead
	of taping it, the connection should be redone.

Subject: What is a GFI/GFCI?

	A GFCI is a ``ground-fault circuit interrupter''.  It measures
	the current current flowing through the hot wire and the
	neutral wire.  If they differ by more than a few milliamps, the
	presumption is that current is leaking to ground via some other
	path.  This may be because of a short circuit to the chassis of
	an appliance, or to the ground lead, or through a person.  Any
	of these situations is hazardous, so the GFCI trips, breaking
	the circuit.

	GFCIs do not protect against all kinds of electric shocks.  If,
	for example, you simultaneously touched the hot and neutral
	leads of a circuit, and no part of you was grounded, a GFCI
	wouldn't help.  All of the current that passed from the hot
	lead into you would return via the neutral lead, keeping the
	GFCI happy.

	The two pairs of connections on a GFCI outlet are not symmetric.
	One is labeled LOAD; the other, LINE.  The incoming power feed
	*must* be connected to the LINE side, or the outlet will not be
	protected.  The LOAD side can be used to protect all devices
	downstream from it.  Thus, a whole string of outlets can be
	covered by a single GFCI outlet.

Subject: Where should GFCIs be used?

	The NEC mandates GFCIs for 110V, 15A or 20A single phase
	outlets, in bathrooms, kitchens within 6' of the sink, wet-bar
	sinks, roof outlets, garages, unfinished basements or crawl spaces,
	outdoors, near a pool, or just about anywhere else where you're likely
	to encounter water or dampness.  There are exceptions for inaccessible
	outlets, those dedicated to appliances ``occupying fixed space'',
	typically refrigerators and freezers, and for sump pumps and
	laundry appliances.

	The NEC now requires that if your replace an outlet in a
	location now requiring GFCI, you must install GFCI protection.
	Note in particular - kitchen and bathroom outlets.

	When using the "fixed appliance" rule for avoiding GFCI outlets,
	single outlet receptacles must be used for single appliances,
	duplex receptacles may be used for two appliances.

	The CEC does not mandate as many GFCIs.  In particular, there
	is no requirement to protect kitchen outlets, or most garage or
	basement outlets.  Basement outlets must be protected if you
	have a dirt floor, garage outlets if they're near the door to
	outside.  Bathrooms and most exterior outlets must have GFCIs,
	as do pools systems and jacuzzi or whirlpool pumps.

	There are many rules about GFCIs with pools and so on.  This
	is outside of our expertise, so we're not covering it in
	detail.  See your inspector.

	When replacing an outlet, it must now be GFCI-protected if
	such would now be required for a new installation.  That is,
	a kitchen outlet installed per the 1984 code need not have
	been protected, but if that outlet is ever replaced, GFCI
	protection must now be added (under NEC).  This is explicit
	in the 1993 NEC, and inspector-imposed in Canada.

	Even if you are not required to have GFCI protection, you may
	want to consider installing it anyway.  Unless you need a GFCI
	breaker (see below), the cost is low.  In the U.S., GFCI
	outlets can cost as little as US$8.  (Costs are a bit higher in
	Canada:  C$12.)  Evaluate your own risk factors.  Does your
	finished basement ever get wet?  Do you have small children?
	Do you use your garage outlets to power outdoor tools?  Does
	water or melted snow ever puddle inside your garage?

Subject: Where shouldn't I use a GFCI?

	GFCIs are generally not used on circuits that (a) don't pose a
	safety risk, and (b) are used to power equipment that must run
	unattended for long periods of time.  Refrigerators, freezers,
	and sump pumps are good examples.  The rationale is that GFCIs
	are sometimes prone to nuisance trips.  Some people claim that
	the inductive delay in motor windings can cause a momentary
	current imbalance, tripping the GFCI.  Note, though, that most
	GFCI trips are real; if you're getting a lot of trips for no
	apparent reason, you'd be well-advised to check your wiring
	before deciding that the GFCI is broken or useless.

Subject: What is the difference between a GFCI outlet and a GFCI breaker?

	For most situations, you can use either a GFCI outlet as the
	first device on the circuit, or you can install a breaker with
	a built-in GFCI.  The former is generally preferred, since GFCI
	breakers are quite expensive.  For example, an ordinary GE
	breaker costs ~US$5; the GFCI model costs ~US$35.  There is one
	major exception:  if you need to protect a ``multi-wire branch
	circuit'' (two or more circuits sharing a common neutral wire),
	such as a Canadian-style kitchen circuit, you'll need a
	multi-pole GFCI breaker.  Unfortunately, these are expensive;
	the cost can range into the hundreds of dollars, depending on
	what brand of panel box you have.  But if you must protect such
	a circuit (say, for a pool heater), you have no choice.

	One more caveat -- GFCI outlets are bulky.  You may want to use
	an oversize box when installing them.  On second thought, use
	large (actually deep) boxes everywhere.  You'll thank yourself
	for it.

	Incidentally, if you're installing a GFCI to ensure that one
	specific outlet is protected (such as a bathroom), you don't
	really have to go to all of the trouble to find the first
	outlet in the circuit, you could simply find the first outlet
	in the bathroom, and not GFCI anything upstream of it.  But
	protecting the whole circuit is preferred.

	When you install a GFCI, it's a good idea to use the little
	"ground fault protected" stickers that come with it and mark
	the outlets downstream of the GFCI.  You can figure out which
	outlets are "downstream", simply by tripping the GFCI with the
	test button and see which outlets are dead.

	Note that the labels are mandatory for GFCI-protected-but-ungrounded
	three prong outlets according to the NEC.

Subject: What's the purpose of the ground prong on an outlet, then?

	Apart from their use in electronics, which we won't comment on,
	and for certain fluorescent lights (they won't turn on without
	a good ground connection), they're intended to guard against
	insulation failures within the device.  Generally, the case of
	the appliance is connected to the ground lead.  If there's an
	insulation failure that shorts the hot lead to the case, the
	ground lead conducts the electricity away safely (and possibly
	trips the circuit breaker in the process).  If the case is not
	grounded and such a short occurs, the case is live -- and if
	you touch it while you're grounded, you'll get zapped.  Of
	course, if the circuit is GFCI-protected, it will be a very
	tiny zap -- which is why you can use GFCIs to replace
	ungrounded outlets (both NEC and CEC).

	There are some appliances that should *never* be grounded.  In
	particular, that applies to toasters and anything else with
	exposed conductors.  Consider:  if you touch the heating
	electrode in a toaster, and you're not grounded, nothing will
	happen.  If you're slightly grounded, you'll get a small shock;
	the resistance will be too high.  But if the case were
	grounded, and you were holding it, you'd be the perfect path to
	ground...

Subject: Why is one prong wider than the other?  Polarization

	Nowadays, many two-prong devices have one prong wider than the
	other.  This is so that the device could rely (not guaranteed!)
	on one specific wire being neutral, and the other hot.
	This is particularly advantageous in light fixtures, where the
	the shell should neutral (safety), or other devices which want to
	have an approximate ground reference (ie: some radios).

	Most 2-prong extension cords have wide prongs too.

	This requires that you wire your outlets and plugs the right
	way around.  You want the wide prong to be neutral, and the
	narrow one hot.  Most outlets have a darker metal for the
	hot screw, and lighter coloured screw for the neutral.
	If not, you can usually figure out which is which by which
	prong the terminating screw connects to.

Subject: How do I convert two prong receptacles to three prong?

	Older homes frequently have two-prong receptacles instead
	of the more modern three.  These receptacles have no safety
	ground, and the cabling usually has no ground wire.  Neither
	the NEC or CEC permits installing new 2 prong receptacles anymore.

	There are several different approaches to solving this:
	    1) If the wiring is done through conduit or BX, and the
	       conduit is continuous back to the panel, you can connect
	       the third prong of a new receptacle to the receptacle
	       box.  NEC mainly - CEC frowns on this practice.
	    2) If there is a copper cold water pipe going nearby, and
	       it's continuous to the main house ground point, you can
	       run a conductor to it from the third prong.
	       NEC: this can only be done if the point of attachment
	       is within 5 feet of where the pipe enters the ground.
	    3) Run a ground conductor back to the main panel.
	    4) Easiest: install a GFCI receptacle.  The ground lug
	       should not be connected to anything, but the GFCI
	       protection itself will serve instead.  The GFCI
	       will also protect downstream (possibly also two prong
	       outlets).  If you do this to protect downstream outlets,
	       the grounds must not be connected together.  Since it
	       wouldn't be connected to a real ground, a wiring fault
	       could energize the cases of 3 prong devices connected
	       to other outlets.  Be sure, though, that there aren't
	       indirect ground plug connections, such as via the sheath
	       on BX cable.

	The CEC permits you to replace a two prong receptacle with a three
	prong if you fill the U ground with a non-conducting goop.
	Like caulking compound.  This is not permitted in the NEC.

	The NEC requires that three prong receptacles without ground
	that are protected by GFCI must be labelled as such.

	See the next section about computers on GFCI-protected groundless
	outlets.

Subject: Surges, spikes, zaps, grounding and your electronics (NEW)

	Theoretically, the power coming into your house is a perfect
	AC sine wave.  It is usually quite close.  But occasionally,
	it won't be.  Lightning strikes and other events will affect
	the power.  These usually fall into two general categories: very
	high voltage spikes (often into 1000s of volts, but usually
	only a few microseconds in length) or surges (longer duration,
	but usually much lower voltage).

	Most of your electrical equipment, motors, transformer-operated
	electronics, lights, etc., won't even notice these one-shot events.
	However, certain types of solid-state electronics, particularly
	computers with switching power supplies and MOS semiconductors,
	can be damaged by these occurances.  For example, a spike can
	"punch a hole" through an insulating layer in a MOS device (such
	as that several hundred dollar 386 CPU), thereby destroying it.

	The traditional approach to protecting your electronics is to use
	"surge suppressors" or "line filters".  These are usually devices
	that you plug in between the outlet and your electronics.

	Roughly speaking, surge suppressors work by detecting overvoltages,
	and shorting them out.  Think of them as voltage limiters.  Line
	filters usually use frequency-dependent circuits (inductors, capacitors
	etc.) to "tune out" undesirable spikes - preventing them from reaching
	your electronics.

	So, you should consider using suppressors or filters on your sensitive
	equipment.

	These devices come in a very wide price range.  From a couple
	of dollars to several hundred.  We believe that you can protect
	your equipment from the vast majority of power problems by selecting
	devices in the $20-50 range.

	A word about grounding: most suppressors and EFI filters require real
	grounds.  Any that don't are next to useless.

	For example, most surge suppressors use MOVs (metal oxide varistors)
	to "clamp" overvoltages.  Yes, you can have a suppressor that only
	has a MOV between neutral and hot to combat differential-mode voltage
	excursions, but that isn't enough.  You need common-mode protection
	too.  Good suppressors should have 3 MOVs, one between each pair of wires.
	Which means you should have a good solid ground.  Eg: a solidly connected
	14ga wire back to the panel.  Not rusty BX armour or galvanized pipe
	with condensation turning the copper connection green.

	Without a ground, a surge or spike is free to "lift" your entire electronics
	system well away from ground.  Which is ideal for blowing out interface
	electronics for printer ports etc.

	Secondly, static electricity is one of the major enemies of electronics.
	Having good frame grounds is one way of protecting against static zaps.

	If you're in the situation of wanting to install computer equipment
	on two wire groundless circuits take note:
	
	Adding a GFCI outlet to the circuit makes the circuit safe for you.
	But it doesn't make it safe for your equipment - you need a ground to
	make surge suppressors or line filters effective.

Subject: Are you sure about GFCIs and ungrounded outlets?
	Should the test button work?

	The NEC, section 210-7(d), and CEC, section 26-700(9), are quite
	explicit that GFCIs are a legal substitute for a grounded outlet
	in an existing installation where there is no ground available in
	the outlet box.

	But your local codes may vary.  As for the TEST button -- there's
	a resistor connecting the LOAD side of the hot wire to the LINE
	side of the neutral wire when you press the TEST button.  Current
	through this resistor shows up as an imbalance, and trips the GFCI.
	This is a simple, passive, and reliable test, and doesn't require
	a real ground to work.  If your GFCI does not trip when you press
	the TEST button, it is very probably defective or miswired.  Again:
	if the test button doesn't work, something's broken, and potentially
	dangerous.  The problem should be corrected immediately.

	The instructions that come with some GFCIs specify that the ground
	wire must be connected.  We do not know why they say this.  The
	causes may be as mundane as an old instruction sheet, or with the
	formalities of UL or CSA listing -- perhaps the device was never
	tested without the ground wire being connected.  On the other hand,
	UL or CSA approval should only have been granted if the device
	behaves properly in *all* listed applications, including ungrounded
	outlet replacement.  (One of us called Leviton; their GFCIs are
	labeled for installation on grounded circuits only.  The technician
	was surprised to see that; he agreed that the NEC does not require
	it, and promised to investigate.)

-- 
Chris Lewis; clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca; Phone: Canada 613 832-0541
Psroff 3.0 info: psroff-request@ferret.ocunix.on.ca
Ferret list: ferret-request@ferret.ocunix.on.ca


Article 24846 of rec.woodworking:
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From: clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca (Chris Lewis)
Newsgroups: misc.consumers.house,rec.woodworking,sci.electronics,news.answers,misc.answers,rec.answers,sci.answers
Subject: Electrical Wiring FAQ [Part 2/2]
Summary: A series of questions and answers about house wiring
Message-ID: <wirefaq.2_749885988@ferret.ocunix.on.ca>
Date: 6 Oct 93 05:40:55 GMT
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Archive-name: electrical-wiring/part2
Last-modified: Tue Sep 14 03:41:00 EDT 1993

Subject: What kind of outlets do I need in a kitchen?

	The NEC requires at least two 20 amp ``small appliance
	circuits'' for kitchen counters.  The CEC requires split-duplex
	receptacles.  Outlets must be installed such that no point is more
	than 24" (NEC) (900 mm CEC) from an outlet.  Every counter wider
	than 12" (NEC) or 300 mm (CEC) must have at least one outlet.
	The circuit these outlets are on may not feed any outlets except
	in the kitchen, pantry, or dining room.  Furthermore, these circuits
	are in addition to any required for refrigerators, stoves, microwaves,
	lighting, etc.  Non-dedicated outlets within 6' of a sink *must* be
	protected by a GFCI (NEC only).

	Split duplex receptacles are fed with a 220V circuit.  The tab
	is broken on the hot side of the outlet, and one hot goes to
	the upper outlet, and the other hot goes to the lower outlet.
	The neutral connects to both outlets through one screw.  When
	"carrying through" to another outlet, the neutral must be
	pigtailed, such that removing the outlet, or having the neutral
	connection fall off doesn't cause the neutral to disconnect
	from downstream outlets.

Subject: Where must outlets and switches be in bathrooms?

	There must be at least one outlet in each bathroom, adjacent to
	the sink, in addition to any outlet that may be incorporated in
	the light fixture.  All such outlets *must* be GFCI-protected.

	The NEC says that switches may not be installed inside bathtubs
	or showers.  The CEC says that switches may not be installed
	"within reach" of bathtubs or showers (consult an inspector
	if you can't make it at least four feet).

Subject: General outlet placement rules/line capacities (NEW)

	We paraphrase CEC 26-702 (NEC: 210-52 through 210-63)

	Note: In laying out receptacle outlets, consideration shall be given
	to the placement of electrical baseboards, hot air registers, hot
	water or steam registers, with a view of eliminating cords having to
	pass over hot or conductive surfaces wherever possible.

	NEC:  You're not allowed to put outlets over electric baseboards.
	That, coupled with the spacing requirements, more or less mandates
	the use of baseboards with integral outlets.  Note that such outlets
	are fed by a different branch circuit than the heating elements.

	2. Except as otherwise required, receptacles shall be installed
	in the finished walls of every room or area, other than kitchens,
	bathrooms, hallways, laundry rooms, utility rooms or closests, so
	that no point along the floor line of any usable wall space is more
	than 1.8m (6') horizontally from a receptacle in that or an
	adjoining space, such distance being measured along the floor line
	of the wall spaces involved.

	Fixed dividers, counters, etc., are considered wall space.  Floor
	outlets do not satisfy the requirement unless they are ``near'' the
	wall.  Insofar as practical, outlets should be spaced equidistantly.

	3. At least one duplex receptacle shall be provided in each enclosed
	area such as a balcony or porch that is not classified as a finished
	room or area.

	[NEC doesn't seem to have this rule.]

	4. The receptacles referred to in (2) and (3) shall be duplex
	receptacles or equivalent number of single receptacles.

	5. "Usable wall space" is defined as any wall space 900mm (3', NEC 2')
	or more in width, not to include doorways, areas occupied by a door
	when fully opened, windows which extend to the floor, fireplaces or
	other permanent installations that would limit the use of the wall
	space.

	6.  See kitchen counter requirements.  At least one duplex receptacle
	in eat-in dining area.

	[We don't think the latter part is in the NEC.  Also, the NEC says that
	the two 20-amp small appliance circuits can't go outside of the kitchen,
	dining room, pantry, etc., nor can they be used for anything else,
	except for things like clock outlets, stove accessory outlets, etc.]

	7. Receptacles shall not be mounted facing up in the work surfaces or
	counters of the kitchen or dining area.

	8. No point in a hallway within a dwelling unit shall be more than
	4.5m (15', NEC 10') from a duplex receptacle as measured by the shortest
	path which the supply cord of an appliance connected to the receptacle
	would follow without passing through an openning fitted with a door.
	(vacuum-cleaner rule).

	9. At least one duplex receptacle shall be provided: in laundry
	room, utility room and any unfinshed basement area
	
	[NEC: see GFCI requirements.  There must be a dedicated 20 amp laundry
	receptacle, with no other outlets, plus an additional unfinished
	basement receptacle.  Any attic or crawl space with heating or air
	conditioning equipment must have a receptacle. (this is probably
	in the CEC too.)]

	10, 11, 12, 13:  See bathroom requirements, GFCI, washing machine
	outlet placement.

	14, 15. Outlets shall not be placed in ironing cabinets, cupboards,
	wall cabinets, nor in similar enclosures except where they're
	for specific non-heating appliances (including microwave) in
	the enclosure.

	[NEC: No such requirement.  Are you sure Steven?]

	16, 17. For each single-family dwelling, at least one duplex receptacle
	shall be installed outdoors to be readily available from ground level
	(see GFCI requirements).  Appendix B (additional notes) suggests front
	and back outlets to be controlled by an interior switch.

	[NEC:  One in front, one in back.  No discussion of them being switched.]

	18. At least one duplex receptacle shall be provided for each car space
	in a garage or carport.

	[NEC:  For an attached garage, or detached garage with electric service --
	but there is no requirement that detached garages have power.  This remark
	is probably relevant to CEC as well.]

	19. For the purposes of this rule, all receptacles shall be of the
	grounding type, configuration 5-15R (standard 110V/15A 3 prong).

	20. Any receptacle that is part of a lighting fixture or appliance
	that is > 1.7m (5 feet) above the floor, or in cabinets or cupboards,
	is not counted in the above rules.

	[NEC:  couldn't find an equivalent rule.]

	21. Where a switched duplex outlet is used in lieu of a light outlet
	and fixture, the receptacle shall be considered one of the wall mounted
	receptacles required here.

	22. At least one duplex receptacle shall be provided for a central
	vacuum system if the ducting is installed.

	[NEC:  couldn't find an equivalent rule.]

	Capacities: Knight recommends no more than 10 outlets per circuit.
	Some US references talk about a limit of 12.  There appears to be a
	wattage/area/outlet count calculation somewhere in the NEC.  20A circuits
	may have different rules.
	
	It is open to considerable debate whether you should mix general lighting
	and outlets on individual circuits.  Knight recommends it.  Some netters
	don't.  I tend towards the former for load balancing reasons.

	NEC: There's a new rule on outdoor outlets.  If exposed to the weather,
	and if used for unattended equipment (pool filters, outdoor lighting,
	etc.), the outlet must still be weatherproof even when the device is
	plugged in.

Subject: What is Romex/NM/NMD?  What is BX?  When should I use each?

	Romex is a brand name for a type of plastic insulated wire.
	Sometimes called non-metallic sheath.  The formal name is NM.
	This is suitable for use in dry, protected areas (ie: inside
	stud walls, on the sides of joists etc.), that are not subject
	to mechanical damage or excessive heat.  Most newer homes are
	wired almost exclusively with NM wire.  There are several
	different categories of NM cable.

	BX cable -- technically known as armored cable or "AC" has a
	flexible aluminum or steel sheath over the conductors and is
	fairly resistant to damage.

	TECK cable is AC with an additional external thermoplastic
	sheath.
	
	Protection for cable in concealed locations: where NM or AC cable
	is run through studs, joists or similar wooden members, the outer
	surface of the cable must be kept at least 32mm/1.25" (CEC & NEC)
	from the edges of the wooden members, or the cable should be protected
	from mechanical injury.  This latter protection can take the form of
	metal plates (such as spare outlet box ends) or conduit.

	[Note: inspector-permitted practice in Canada suggests that armored
	cable, or flexible conduit can be used as the mechanical protection,
	but this is technically illegal.]

	Additional protection recommendations: [These are rules in the
	Canadian codes.  The 1993 NEC has many changes that bring
	it close to these rules.  These are reasonable answers to the
	vague "exposed to mechanical damage" in both the NEC and CEC.]

	    - NM cable should be protected against mechanical damage
	      where it passes through floors or on the surface of walls
	      in exposed locations under 5 feet from the floor.
	      Ie: use AC instead, flexible conduit, wooden guards etc.
	    - Where cable is suspended, as in, connections to furnaces
	      or water heaters, the wire should be protected.  Canadian
	      practice is usually to install a junction or outlet
	      box on the wall, and use a short length of AC cable
	      or NM cable in flexible conduit to "jump" to the appliance.
	      Stapling NM to a piece of lumber is also sometimes used.
	    - Where NM cable is run in close proximity to heating
	      ducts or pipe, heat transfer should be minimized by
	      means of a 25mm/1" air space, or suitable insulation
	      material (a wad of fiberglass).
	    - NM cable shall be supported within 300mm/1' of every box
	      or fitting, and at intervals of no more than 1.5m/5'.
	      Holes in joists or studs are considered "supports".
	      Some slack in the cable should be provided adjacent to
	      each box.  [while fishing cable is technically in violation,
	      it is permitted where "proper" support is impractical]
	    - 2 conductor NM cable should never be stapled on edge.
	      [Knight also insists on only one cable per staple, referring
	      to the "workmanship" clause, but this seems more honoured
	      in the breach...]
	    - cable should never be buried in plaster, cement or
	      similar finish, except were required by code [Ie: cable
	      burial with shallow bedrock.].
	    - cable should be protected where it runs behind baseboards.
	    - Cable may not be run on the upper edge of ceiling joists
	      or the lower edges of rafters where the headroom is more
	      than 1m (39").

	Whenever BX cable is terminated at a box with a clamp, small
	plastic bushings must be inserted in the end of the cable to
	prevent the clamps forcing the sharp ends of the armor through
	the insulation.

	Whenever BX cable is buried in thermal insulation, 90C
	wire should be selected, but derated in current carrying
	capacity to 60C.

	BX is sometimes a good idea in a work shop unless covered by
	solid wall coverings.

	In places where damage is more likely (like on the back wall of
	a garage ;-), you may be required to use conduit, a
	UL- (or CSA-) approved metal pipe.  You use various types of
	fittings to join the pipe or provide entrance/exit for the
	wire.

	Service entrances frequently use a plastic conduit.

	In damp places (eg: buried wiring to outdoor lighting) you will
	need special wire (eg: CEC NMW90, NEC UF).  NMW90 looks like
	very heavy-duty NMD90.  You will usually need short lengths of
	conduit where the wire enters/exits the ground.  [See underground
	wiring section.]

 	Thermoplastic sheath wire (such as NM, NMW etc.) should not be
 	exposed to direct sunlight unless explicitly approved for that
 	purpose.

	Many electrical codes do not permit the routing of wire through
	furnace ducts, including cold air return plenums constructed
	by metal sheeting enclosing joist spaces.   The reason for this
	is that if there's a fire, the ducting will spread toxic gasses
	from burning insulation very rapidly through the building.
	Teflon insulated wire is permitted in plenums in many areas.
	
 	Canada appears to use similar wire designations to the US,
 	except that Canadian wire designations usually include the
 	temperature rating in Celsius.  Eg: "AC90" versus "AC".
	In the US, NM-B is 90 degrees celcius.

	NOTE: local codes vary.  This is one of the items that changes
	most often.  Eg: Chicago codes require conduit *everywhere*.
	There are very different requirements for mobile homes.
	Check your local codes, *especially* if you're doing anything
	that's the slightest out of the ordinary.

	Wire selection table (incomplete - the real tables are enormous,
	uncommon wire types or applications omitted)

	Condition			Type	CEC	NEC

	Exposed/Concealed dry		plastic	NMD90	NM
					armor	AC90	AC
						TECK90

	Exposed/Concealed damp		plastic	NMD90	NMC
					armor	ACWU90
						TECK90

	Exposed/Concealed wet		plastic	NMWU90
					armor	ACWU90
						TECK90
	
	Exposed to weather		plastic	NMWU
						TW etc.
					armor	TECK90
	
	Direct earth burial/		plastic	NMWU*	UF
	Service entrance			RWU
						TWU
					armor	RA90
						TECK90
						ACWU90
	[* NMWU not for service entrance]

Subject: Should I use plastic or metal boxes?

	The NEC permits use of plastic boxes with non-metallic cable
	only.  The reasoning is simple -- with armored cable, the box
	itself provides ground conductor continuity.  U.S. plastic
	boxes don't use metal cable clamps.

	The CEC is slightly different.  The CEC never permits cable
	armor as a grounding conductor.  However, you must still
	provide ground continuity for metallic sheath.  The CEC also
	requires grounding of any metal cable clamps on plastic boxes.

	The advantage of plastic boxes is comparatively minor even for
	non-metallic sheathed cable -- you can avoid making one ground
	connection and they sometimes cost a little less.  On the other
	hand, plastic boxes are more vulnerable to impacts.  For
	exposed or shop wiring, metal boxes are probably better.

	Metal receptacle covers must be grounded, even on plastic
	boxes.  This may be achieved by use of a switch with ground
	connection.

Subject: Junction box positioning?

	A junction box is a box used only for connecting wires together.

	Junction boxes must be located in such a way that they're accessible
	later.  Ie: not buried under plaster.  Excessive use of junction
	boxes is often a sign of sloppy installation, and inspectors may
	get nasty.

Subject: Can I install a replacement light fixture?

	In general, one can replace fixtures freely, subject to a few
	caveats.  First, of course, one should check the amperage
	rating of the circuit.  If your heart is set on installing half
	a dozen 500 watt floodlights, you may need to run a new wire
	back to the panel box.  But there are some more subtle
	constraints as well.  For example, older house
	wiring doesn't have high-temperature insulation.  The excess
	heat generated by a ceiling-mounted lamp can and will cause the
	insulation to deteriorate and crack, with obvious bad results.
	Some newer fixtures are specifically marked for high
	temperature wire only.  (You may find, in fact, that your
	ceiling wiring already has this problem, in which case
	replacing any devices is a real adventure.)

	Other concerns include providing a suitable ground for some
	fluorescent fixtures, and making sure that the ceiling box and
	its mounting are strong enough to support the weight of a heavy
	chandelier or ceiling fan.  You may need to install a new box
	specifically listed for this purpose.  A 2x4 across the ceiling
	joists makes a good support.  Metal brackets are also available
	that can be fished into ceilings thru the junction box hole and
	mounted between the joists.

	There are special rules for recessed light fixtures such as
	"pot" lamps or heat lamps.  When these are installed in insulated
	ceilings, they can present a very substantial fire hazard.
	The CEC provides for the installation of pot lamps in insulated
	ceilings, provided that the fixture is boxed in a "coffin" (usually
	8'x16"x12" - made by making a pair of joists 12" high, and covering
	with plywood) that doesn't have any insulation.  (Yes, that's 8 *feet*
	long)

	NEC rules are somewhat less stringent.  They require at least 3"
	clearance between the fixture and any sort of thermal insulation.
	The rules also say that one should not obstruct free air movement,
	which means that a CEC-style ``coffin'' might be worthwhile.
	Presumably, that's up to the local inspector.  [The CEC doesn't
	actually mandate the coffin per-se, this seems to be an inspector
	requirement to make absolutely certain that the fixture can't get
	accidentally buried in insulation.  Ie: if you have insulation blown
	in later.]

	There are now fixtures that contain integral thermal cutouts and
	fairly large cases that can be buried directly in insulation.  They are
	usually limited to 75 watt bulbs, and are unfortunately, somewhat
	more expensive than the older types.  Before you use them, you should
	ensure that they have explicit UL or CSA approval for such uses.
	Follow the installation instructions carefully; the prescribed location
	for the sensor can vary.

	There does not yet appear to be a heat lamp fixture that is approved
	for use in insulation.  The "coffin" appears the only legal approach.

Subject: Noisy fluorescent fixtures, what do I do?

	Many fluorescent fixtures tend to buzz, objectionably so when used in
	residential (rather than warehouse or industrial) situations.  This
	tends to be the result of magnetic/physical resonances at the
	(low) frequencies that standard fixture ballasts operate.  You
	can eliminate this problem by switching to electronic ballasts,
	which operate at a higher (inaudible) frequency.  Unfortunately,
	these are quite expensive.

Subject: What does it mean when the lights brighten when a motor starts?

	This usually means that the neutral wire in the panel is
	loose.  Depending on the load balance, one hot wire may end up
	being more than 110V, and the other less than 110V, with
	respect to ground.  This is a very hazardous situation - it can
	destroy your electronic equipment, possibly start fires, and in
	some situations electrocute you (ie: some US jurisdictions
	require the stove frame connected to neutral).

	If this happens, contact your electrical authority immediately
	and have them come and check out the problem.

	Note: a brief (< 1 second) brightening is sometimes normal with
	lighting and motors on the same 220V with neutral circuit.  A
	loose main panel neutral will usually show increased brightness
	far longer than one second.  In case of doubt, get help.

Subject: What is 3 phase power?  Should I use it?  Can I get it in my house?

	Three phase power has three "hot" wires, 120 degrees out of
	phase with each other.  These are usually used for large motors
	because it is more "efficient", provides a bit more starting torque,
	and because the motors are simpler and hence cheaper.

	You're most likely to encounter a 3 phase circuit that shows
	110 volts between any hot and ground, and 208 volts between
	any two hots.  The latter shows the difference between a normal
	220V/110V common neutral circuit, which is 240 volts between the
	two hots.  There are 3 phase circuits with different voltages.

	Bringing in a 3 phase feed to your house is usually
	ridiculously expensive, or impossible.  If the equipment you
	want to run has a standard motor mount, it is *MUCH* cheaper to
	buy a new 110V or 220V motor for it.  In some cases it is
	possible to run 3 phase equipment on ordinary power if you have
	a "capacitor start" unit, or use a larger motor as a
	(auto-)generator.  These are tricky, but are a good solution if
	the motor is non-standard size, or too expensive or too big to
	replace.  The Taunton Press book ``The Small Shop'' has an
	article on how to do this if you must.

	Note that you lose any possible electrical efficiency by using
	such a converter.  The laws of thermodynamics guarantee that.

Subject: Is it better to run motors at 110 or 220?

	Theoretically, it doesn't make any difference.  However, there
	is a difference is the amount of power lost in the supply
	wiring.  All things being equal, a 110V motor will lose 4 times
	more power in the house wiring than a 220V motor.  This also
	means that the startup surge loss will be less, and the motor
	will get to speed quicker with 220V.  And in some circumstances,
	the smaller power loss will lead to longer motor life.

	This is usually irrelevant unless the supply wires are more
	than 50 feet long.

Subject: What is this nonsense about 3HP on 110V 15A circuits?

	It is a universal physical law that 1 HP is equal to 746
	watts.  Given heating loss, power factor and other inefficiencies,
	it is usually best to consider 1 HP is going to need 1000-1200
	watts.  A 110V 15A circuit can only deliver 1850 watts to a motor,
	so it cannot possibly be more than approximately 2 HP.  Given rational
	efficiency factors, 1.5HP is more like it.

	Some equipment manufacturers (Sears in particular, most router
	manufacturers in general ;-) advertise a HP rating that is far
	in excess of what is possible.  They are giving you a "stall
	horsepower" or similar.  That means the power is measured when
	the motor is just about to stop turning because of the load.
	What they don't mention is that if you kept it in that
|	condition for more than a few seconds your motor will melt - the
|	motor is drawing far more current than its continuous rating.

	When comparing motors, compare the continuous horsepower.  This
	should be on the motor nameplate.  If you can't find that figure,
	check the amperage rating, which is always present.

Subject: How should I wire my shop?

	As with any other kind of wiring, you need enough power for all
	devices that will be on simultaneously.  The code specifies
	that you should stay under 80% of the nominal capacity of the
	circuit.  For typical home shop use, this means one circuit for
	the major power tools, and possibly one for a dust collector or
	shop vac.  Use at least 12 gauge wire -- many power tools have
	big motors, with a big start-up surge.  If you can, use 20 amp
	breakers (NEC), though CEC requires standard 20A receptacles
	which means you'd have to "replug" all your equipment.  Lights
	should either be on a circuit of their own -- and not shared
	with circuits in the rest of the house -- or be on at least two
	separate circuits.  The idea is that you want to avoid a
	situation where a blade is still spinning at several thousand
	RPM, while you're groping in the dark for the OFF switch.

	Do install lots of outlets.  It's easier to install them in the
	beginning, when you don't have to cut into an existing cable.
	It's useful if at least two circuits are accessible at each
	point, so you can run a shop vac or a compressor at the same
	time as the tool you really want.  But use metal boxes and
	plates, and maybe even metal-sheathed cable; you may have
	objects flying around at high speeds if something goes a bit
	wrong.

	Note that some jurisdictions have a "no horizontal wiring"
	rule in workshops or other unfinished areas that are used
	for working.  What this means is that all wiring must be
	run along structural members.  Ie: stapled to studs.

	Other possible shop circuits include heater circuits, 220V
	circuits for some large tools, and air compressor circuits.
	Don't overload circuits, and don't use extension cords if you
	can help it, unless they're rated for high currents.  (A coiled
	extension cord is not as safe as a straight length of wire of
	the same gauge.  Also, the insulation won't withstand as much
	heat, and heat dissipation is the critical issue.)

	If your shop is located at some remove from your main panel,
	you should probably install a subpanel, and derive your shop
	wiring from it.  If you have young children, you may want to
	equip this panel with a cut-off switch, and possibly a lock.
	If you want to install individual switches to ``safe''
	particular circuits, make sure you get ones rated high enough.
	For example, ordinary light switches are not safely able to
	handle the start-up surge generated by a table saw.  Buy
	``horsepower-rated'' switches instead.

	Finally, note that most home shops are in garages or unfinished
	basements; hence the NEC requirements for GFCIs apply.  And
	even if you ``know'' that you'd never use one of your shop
	outlets to run a lawn mower, the next owner of your house might
	have a different idea.

	Note: Fine Woodworking magazine often carries articles on shop
	wiring.  April 1992 is one place to start.

Subject: Doorbell/telephone/cable other service wiring hints.

	Auxiliary services, such as cable, telephone, doorbell, furnace
	control circuits etc. are generally considered to be "class 2"
	wiring by both the CEC and NEC.

	What this generally means is:

		1) class 2 and house power should not share conduit or
		   termination boxes.
		2) class 2 and house power should be 12" apart in walls
		   except where necessary.
		3) cross-over should be at 90 degrees.
	
	While the above may not be strictly necessary to the code, it
	is advantageous anyways - paralleling house power beside telephone
	lines tends to induce hum into the telephone.  Or could interfere
	with fancier furnace control systems.

	With telephone wiring, twisted pair can alleviate these problems,
	and there are new cable types that combine multiple services into
	one sheath.  Consult your inspector if you really want to violate
	the above recommendations.

Subject: Underground Wiring

	You will need to prepare a trench to specifications, use
	special wire, protect the wire with conduit or special plastic
	tubing and possibly lumber (don't use creosoted lumber, it rots
	thermoplastic insulation and acts as a catalyst in the corrosion
	of lead).  The transition from in-house to underground wire is
	generally via conduit.  All outdoor boxes must be specifically
	listed for the purpose, and contain the appropriate gaskets,
	fittings, etc.  If the location of the box is subject to immersion
	in water, a more serious style of water-proof box is needed.  And
	of course, don't forget the GFCIs.

	The required depths and other details vary from jurisdiction to
	jurisdiction, so we suggest you consult your inspector about
	your specific situation.

	A hint: buy a roll of bright yellow tape that says "buried power
	line" and bury it a few inches above where the wire has been placed.

Subject: Aluminum wiring

	During the 1970's, aluminum (instead of copper) wiring became
	quite popular and was extensively used.  Since that time,
	aluminum wiring has been implicated in a number of house fires,
	and most jurisdictions no longer permit it in new installations.
	We recommend, even if you're allowed to, that do not use it for new
	wiring.

	But don't panic if your house has aluminum wiring.  Aluminum
	wiring, when properly installed, can be just as safe as copper.
	Aluminum wiring is, however, very unforgiving of improper
	installation.  We will cover a bit of the theory behind potential
	problems, and what you can do to make your wiring safe.

	The main problem with aluminum wiring is a phenomenon known as
	"cold creep".  When aluminum wiring warms up, it expands.  When
	it cools down, it contracts.  Unlike copper, when aluminum goes
	through a number of warm/cool cycles it loses a bit of tightness each
	time.  To make the problem worse, aluminum oxidises, or corrodes
	when in contact with certain types of metal, so the resistance
	of the connection goes up.  Which causes it to heat up and corrode/
	oxidize still more.  Eventually the wire may start getting very hot,
	melt the insulation or fixture it's attached to, and possibly even
	cause a fire.

	Since people usually encounter aluminum wiring when they move
	into a house built during the 70's, we will cover basic points of
	safe aluminum wiring.  We suggest that, if you're considering purchasing
	a home with aluminum wiring, or have discovered it later, that you
	hire a licensed electrician or inspector to check over the wiring
	for the following things:

	    1) Fixtures (eg: outlets and switches) directly attached to
	       aluminum wiring should be rated for it.  The device will
	       be stamped with "Al/Cu" or "CO/ALR".  The latter supersedes
	       the former, but both are safe.   These fixtures are somewhat
	       more expensive than the ordinary ones.

	    2) Wires should be properly connected (at least 3/4 way around
	       the screw in a clockwise direction).  Connections should be
	       tight.  While repeated tightening of the screws can make the
	       problem worse, during the inspection it would pay off to snug
	       up each connection.

	       Note that aluminum wiring is still often used for the
	       main service entrance cable.  It should be inspected.

	    3) "push-in" terminals are an extreme hazard with aluminum wire.
	       Any connections using push-in terminals should be redone with
	       the proper screw connections immediately.

	    4) There should be no signs of overheating: darkened connections,
	       melted insulation, or "baked" fixtures.  Any such damage should
	       be repaired.
	    
	    5) Connections between aluminum and copper wire need to be
	       handled specially.  Current Canadian codes require that the
	       wire nut used must be specially marked for connecting
	       aluminum to copper.  The NEC requires that the wire be
	       connected together using special crimp devices, with an
	       anti-oxidant grease.  The tools and materials for the latter
	       are quite expensive - not practical to do it yourself unless
	       you can rent the tool.

	    6) Any non-rated receptacle can be connected to aluminum wiring
	       by means of a short copper "pigtail".  See (5) above.
	    
	    7) Shows reasonable workmanship: neat wiring, properly stripped
	       (not nicked) wire etc.
    
	If, when considering purchasing a home, an inspection of the wiring
	shows no problems or only one or two, we believe that you can consider
	the wiring safe.  If there are signs of problems in many places,
	we suggest you look elsewhere.  If the wrong receptacles are used,
	you can replace them with the proper type, or use pigtails - having
	this professionally done can range from $3 to $10 per receptacle/switch.
	You can do this yourself too.

Subject: I'm buying a house!  What should I do?

	Congratulations.  But...  It's generally a good idea to hire
	an inspector to look through the house for hidden gotchas.
	Not just for wiring, but plumbing and structural as well.  If an
	inspection of the wiring shows no problems or only one or two minor
	ones, we believe that you can consider the wiring safe (after any
	minor problems are fixed).  If there are signs of problems in many
	places, we suggest you look elsewhere.

	Here's some hints on what to look for:

	Obvious non-code wiring can include:

		- Zip cord wiring, either concealed or nailed to walls
		- Hot wiring on the identified (neutral) conductor without
		  proper marking.
		- Ungrounded grounding outlets (except when downstream of
		  a GFCI)
		- Splices hanging in mid-air (other than proper knob-and-tube)
		- Switched neutrals
		- Unsecured Romex swinging about like grapevines

	Certain wiring practices that are actually to code (or were at one
	time) sometimes reveal DIY wiring that may have hidden violations:

		- Switches that seem to control nothing (abandoned, perhaps
		   not properly terminated wiring)
		- A wall switch that controls things that you think it
		  shouldn't, for instance mysteriously removing power
		  from lights or outlets in other rooms. 
		- Switches and outlets in bizarre locations
		- Great numbers of junction boxes without outlets or lamps
		- Junction boxes with great numbers of wires going into them
		- Wiring that passes through a closet instead of a wall or
		  ceiling
		- Backwrapped grounding wires (ground wire wrapped around
		  the incoming cable insulation outside the box).
		- A breaker or fuse for outside wiring that is near the bottom
		  of the breaker panel or in an add-on fusebox.  The outdoor
		  wiring may have been homeowner-installed after the house was
		  built, and was not buried deep enough or was done with the
		  wrong kind of wire.   

Subject: What is this weird stuff?  Old style wiring
	
	In the years since Edison "invented" electricity, several different
	wiring "styles" have come and gone.  When you buy an older home you
	may encounter some of this stuff.  This section describes the old 
	methods, and some of their idiosyncrasies.

	The oldest wiring system you're likely to encounter is called
	"knob and tube" (K&T).  It is made up of individual conductors with
	a cloth insulation.  The wires are run along side structural
	members (eg: joists or studs) using ceramic stand-offs (knobs).
	Wire is run through structural members using ceramic tubes.  Connections
	were made by twisting the wire together, soldering, and wrapping
	with tape.  Since the hot and neutral were run separately,
	the wiring tends to be rather confusing.  A neutral often runs
	down the centre of each room, with "taps" off to each fixture.
	The hot wire tended to run from one fixture to the next.  In some
	cases K&T isn't colour-coded, so the neutral is often the same
	colour as the hot wires.

	You'll see K&T in homes built as late as the 40's.

	Comments on K&T:

		- the people installing K&T were pretty paranoid about
		  electricity, so the workmanship tends to be pretty good.
		- The wire, insulation and insulators tend to stand up
		  very well.  Most K&T I've seen, for example, is in
		  quite good condition.
		- No grounding.  Grounding is usually difficult to install.
		- boxes are small.  Receptacle replacement (particularly with
		  GFCI) can be difficult.  No bushing on boxes either,
		  so wiring changes need special attention to box entry.
		- Sometimes the neutral isn't balanced very well between
		  separately hot circuits, so it is sometimes possible to
		  overload the neutral without exceeding the fusing on
		  any circuit.
		- In DC days it was common to fuse both sides, and no
		  harm was done.  In fact, it was probably a Good Thing.
		  The practise apparently carried over to K&T where
		  you may find fused neutrals.  This is a very bad
		  thing.
		- Building code does not permit insulation in walls
		  that contain K&T.
		- Connection to existing K&T from new circuits can be
		  tricky.  Consult your inspector.
		- Modern wiring practice requires considerably more
		  outlets to be installed than K&T systems did.
	
	Since K&T tends to be in pretty decent condition it generally isn't
	necessary to replace it simply because it's K&T.  What you should
	watch out for is renovations that have interfered with it and
	be cautious about circuit loading.  In many cases it's perfectly
	reasonable to leave existing K&T alone, and add new fixtures on
	new circuits using modern techniques.
	
	After K&T, they invented multi-conductor cable.  The first type
	you will see is roughly a cloth and varnish insulation.  It looks
	much like the romex cable of the last decade or two.  This stuff was
	used in the 40's and 50's.  Again, no grounding conductor.
	It was installed much like modern wiring.  Its major drawback
	is that this type of insulation embrittles.  We've seen whole
	systems where the insulation would fracture and fall off at
	a touch.  BX cable of the same vintage has similar problems.
	It is possible for the hot conductor to short out to the cable
	jacket.  Since the jacket is rusted, it no longer presents
	a low resistance return path for the current flow, but rather
	more acts like a resistance heater.  In extreme cases the
	cable jacket will become red hot without blowing the fuse or circuit
	breaker.  The best thing to do with old style BX is to replace
	it with modern cable whenever it's encountered and there's any
	hint of the sheath rusting.

	This stuff is very fragile, and becomes rather hazardous if
	the wires become bare.  This wiring should be left untouched as
	much as possible - whenever an opportunity arises, replace it.
	A simple receptacle or switch replacement can turn into a several
	hour long frustrating fight with electrical tape or heat-shrink
	tubing.

	After this wiring technique, the more modern romex was invented.
	It's almost a asphalt impregnated cloth.  Often a bit sticky.
	This stuff stands up reasonably well and doesn't present a hazard
	and is reasonably easy to work with.  It does not need to be
	replaced - it should be considered as safe as the "modern" stuff -
	thermoplastic insulation wire.  Just don't abuse it too much.

Subject: Where do I buy stuff?

	Try to find a proper electrical supply outlet near you.  Their
	prices will often be considerably better than chain hardware stores or
	DIY centres, have better quality materials, have wider variety
	including the "odd" stuff, and have people behind the counter that
	know what you're talking about.  Cultivate friendly knowledgeable
	sales people.  They'll give you much valuable information.

Subject: Copper wire characteristics table

	These are taken from the Amateur Radio Relay Handbook, 1985.

	AWG  dia    circ  open   cable  ft/lb   ohms/
	     mils   mils  air A  Amp    bare    1000'

	10   101.9 10380    55    33    31.82   1.018
	12    80.8  6530    41    23    50.59   1.619
	14    64.1  4107    32    17    80.44   2.575

	We don't show specs for 8ga or larger because they're
	usually stranded.

	Mils are .001".  "open air A" is a continuous rating for
	a single conductor with insulation in open air.  "cable amp"
	is for in multiple conductor cables.  Disregard the amperage
	ratings for household use.

	To calculate voltage drop, plug in the values:
		
		V = DIR/1000'
	
	Where I is the amperage, R is from the ohms/1000' column
	above, and D is the total distance the current travels (don't
	forget to add the length of the neutral and hot together - ie:
	usually double cable length).  Design rules in the CEC call
	for a maximum voltage drop of 6% (7V on 120V circuit)
-- 
Chris Lewis; clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca; Phone: Canada 613 832-0541
Psroff 3.0 info: psroff-request@ferret.ocunix.on.ca
Ferret list: ferret-request@ferret.ocunix.on.ca


Article 25061 of rec.woodworking:
Newsgroups: rec.woodworking
Path: samba.oit.unc.edu!concert!news-feed-1.peachnet.edu!emory!wa4mei!igikpak!davbon!davek
From: davek@davbon.uucp (Dave Kennedy)
Subject: Re: Handtool FAQ
Message-ID: <1993Oct10.000328.1789@davbon.uucp>
Organization: Dave and Bonnie
References: <CEJD6E.I1s@acsu.buffalo.edu>
Date: Sun, 10 Oct 1993 00:03:28 GMT
Lines: 11

kensmith@cs.Buffalo.EDU (Ken Smith) writes:
>My previous post asking for input on a Handtool FAQ generated one response.
>I don't mind researching it myself but I'm wondering if there is enough
>interest out there for me to bother.  If you think having one is a good
>idea let me know through email.  I'll drop the idea if there isn't enough
>interest.

I'm interested.  I know you said email, but I don't have reliable paths.
-- 
| Dave Kennedy        -  UUCP {gatech,emory}!wa4mei!igikpak!davbon!davek |
| Home: 404-368-0331  -  Internet  wa4mei!igikpak!davek@mathcs.emory.edu |



---------------------------------------
Accessing the rec.woodworking FAQlists:
---------------------------------------

anonymous ftp:

ftp sunsite.unc.edu
cd pub/academic
cd agriculture/sustainable_agriculture
-then, for rec.woodworking FAQs:
cd newsgroups/rec.woodworking/faqs
-or-
cd medicine/alternative-healthcare/miscellaneous
-or-
cd environment/alternative-energy/miscellaneous

telnet:

telnet sunsite.unc.edu
Login: gopher
Enter term type: (vt100 works fine)
- sunSITE GOPHER comes up -

The Worlds of sunSITE
Sustainable Agriculture Information
Browse Sustainable Agriculture Information
sustainable_agriculture 
-then go to-
recgardens
(all the faqs are here)
-or-
newsgroups
rec.woodworking
faqs
(all the r.w faqs are here)
- OR -

The Worlds of sunSITE
browse sunsite archives
academic
environment
alternative energy
miscellaneous

The Worlds of sunSITE
browse sunsite archives
academic
medicine
alternative healthcare
miscellaneous


NEWSGROUPS and MAILING LISTS
----------     ------- -----
Reading alt.sustainable.agriculture gives you everything flowing
through the sustag-public and sanet-mg lists in addition to any 
articles posted directly to the newsgroup.

[Listed are host systems (i.e. mailing list server site address, 
mailing list name, and name of newsgroup that it's gated to, if at all]

Mailing Lists:
--------------

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sustag-public@twosocks.ces.ncsu.edu
alt.sustainable.agriculture
[sanet-mg is gated read-only to this newsgroup _not_ to the mailing list]

almanac@twosocks.ces.ncsu.edu
sanet-mg@twosocks.ces.ncsu.edu (Sustainable Agriculture Network mail group)

almanac@twosocks.ces.ncsu.edu
sustag-principles@twosocks.ces.ncsu.edu


Usenet Newsgroups:
------------------

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alt.agriculture.misc
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Others:

rec.gardens
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sci.bio
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bionet plants
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misc.health.alternative
sci.life-extension
alt.health.ayurveda
alt.meditation
misc.health.diabetes
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alt.food.fat-free

-soon to come-

alt.energy.renewable
sci.agriculture (if voted in)

Other mailing lists:
--------------------

>From almanac@twosocks.ces.ncsu.edu:

renew-energy (Renewable Energy)
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>From mailserv@iris.uncg.edu:

MaxLife-L (Towards a Positive, Healthy Lifestyle)


Articles in all of the mailing lists and newsgroups listed above,
FAQs and other information are archived at sunSITE. They are
accesable by ftp, telnet, Gopher, WAIS & FTPMail.

--=--

For more information contact:
 
 Lawrence London
 london@sunSITE.unc.edu
 sunSITE ftp directories:
 /pub/academic/agriculture/sustainable_agriculture
 /pub/academic/environment/alternative-energy/miscellaneous
 /pub/academic/medicine/alternative-healthcare/miscellaneous

 --=OR=--
 
 Paul Jones
 Paul_Jones@unc.edu
 Office for Information Technology
 University of North Carolina
 Chapel, Hill, N.C.
 1-919-962-9107







Article 21751 of rec.woodworking:
From: gph@hpcc01.corp.hp.com (G. Paul Houtz)
Date: Mon, 12 Jul 1993 21:14:23 GMT
Subject: Panel Clamps -- Addendum
Message-ID: <4320497@hpcc01.corp.hp.com>
Organization: the HP Corporate notes server
Path: samba.oit.unc.edu!concert!gatech!howland.reston.ans.net!math.ohio-state.edu!sdd.hp.com!col.hp.com!news.dtc.hp.com!hpscit.sc.hp.com!hplextra!hpcc05!hpcc01!gph
Newsgroups: rec.woodworking
Lines: 68



There were some questions about my hanging panel clamps, and so I wanted 
to post the answers, in case others were wondering.

1.  If the maple pieces  are against the wall, how do you clamp the maple pieces
    together.

 
    Good question.   Actually, I sort of oversimplified this part of it.

    The clamps are not attacted to the wall, but rather to two horizontal
    2X4 that are attached to the wall (X marks spots you might clamp):



             _               _             _
            | |             | |           | |       
            | |             | |           | |       
            | |             | |           | |       
            | |             | |           | |       
            | |             | |           | |       
            | |             | |           | |       
            | | X           | |X          | |X      
      +-----+ +-------------+ +-----------+ +--------
      |     | |             | |           | |       |
      +-----+ +-------------+ +-----------+ +--------
            | |             | |           | |       
            | |             | |           | |       
            | |             | |           | |       
            | |             | |           | |       
            | | X           | |X          | |X      
      +-----+ +-------------+ +-----------+ +--------
      |     | |             | |           | |       |
      +-----+ +-------------+ +-----------+ +--------
            | |             | |           | |       
            | |             | |           | |       
            | | X           | |X          | |X      
            | |             | |           | |       
            | |             | |           | |       
            | |             | |           | |       
            | |             | |           | |       
            |_|             |_|           |_|       


    The 2X4's leave a 1-1/2" space between the back of the clamp and the
    wall.


2.  How do you keep the glue from sticking to the clamps?

    My answer is not very high tech, I am afraid.   I just stick pieces
    of paper between the clamp and the work.    I use recycled paper, of
    course, and I tear it up into strips the size of the maple pieces, roughly.

    Last time I did it, I had a little trouble with the paper fluttering
    loose and getting into the glue, so I used a glue stick to stick the 
    paper to the clamps.  You can buy them at most stationary stores:

            FaberCastell  UHU stic  Glue Stick  U125 - 40g 1.41 oz

    It is mainly used to stick paper together, and washes off with water.
    I used a water soluable polyurethane finish on the maple, and the 
    glue stick doesn't make a permanent bond to it, for some reason.  At least
    it hasn't yet.

    After about 20 or 30 uses, I will take the clamps down and joint the
    faces once to clean up any left over glue.


Article 21320 of rec.woodworking:
Path: samba.oit.unc.edu!concert!gatech!howland.reston.ans.net!usc!rutgers!rochester!roche
From: roche@cs.rochester.edu (James Roche)
Newsgroups: rec.woodworking,news.answers,rec.answers
Subject: rec.woodworking Frequently Asked Questions
Message-ID: <woodworking/faq/faq_741368630@cs.rochester.edu>
Date: 29 Jun 93 15:44:01 GMT
Expires: 12 Aug 1993 15:43:50 GMT
Sender: roche@cs.rochester.edu (James Roche)
Reply-To: roche@cs.rochester.edu
Followup-To: poster
Organization: University of Rochester Computer Science Dept
Lines: 571
Approved: news-answers-request@MIT.Edu
Supersedes: <woodworking/faq/faq_738508870@cs.rochester.edu>
Frequency: monthly
Xref: samba.oit.unc.edu rec.woodworking:21320 news.answers:9589 rec.answers:1297

Archive-name: woodworking/faq/faq
Last-modified: 5/5/93


I have been reading and archiving rec.woodworking since its inception
as net.rec.wood back in 1984. Below are some of the topics that seem to
come up frequently.

If you have any constructive comments please let me know. If there is
something you would like to see added please pass it on to me.

TABLE OF CONTENTS:
	1). Should I buy a table saw or a radial arm saw?
	2). Which type of dado blade should I buy, the dial (wobble type) or
		the stacking (chipper type)?
	3). How do I cut the perfect dado if both types of dado blades have
		shortcomings?
	4). Should I buy a Sears blurfl?
	5). Should I buy a Taiwanese clone blurfl?
	6). How do I remove paint?
	7). Should I use a hot melt glue gun for my next project?
	8). Where can I get plans for the New Yankee Workshop projects?
	9). What is the best woodworking magazine?
	10). What is a board foot?
	11). What is the correct way to handle the glue squeeze out problem?
	12). What books should I purchase to learn about various aspects of
		woodworking?
	13). How do I finish toys so that they are non-toxic?
	14). What size drill bit do I use for a wood screw?
	15). How do I finish the edge of plywood?
	16). Which saw blade should I buy?
	17). Where are the archives for rec.woodworking?
	18). Where can I find cradle plans?
	19). Where can I find futon plans?
	20). Where can I get information about particle board?


1). Should I buy a table saw or a radial arm saw?

	Table saws work best for ripping. Radial arm saws work best for
	crosscutting, but are limited by their arm's length. Both 
	saws will perform both tasks. The radial arm is more adaptable for 
	non-sawing tasks. For instance, overhead routing, surface planing, and 
	drum sanding attachments are available for some radial arm saws. You
	can buy a disk sanding attachment for use on most table saws.

	Ripping on the radial arm saw is difficult because it is necessary
	to push the lumber under the motor housing.  This problem can be
	minimized by use of pushsticks and holddown wheels. Maximum rip width
	is normally limited by the length of the arm. Building a secondary rip
	fence on the other side of the table from the column will enable you to
	rip wider pieces, but the off-cut piece width is then limited. Radial
	arm saws are more prone to overheating during rips in thick wood since
	the teeth stay in the cut longer, unless you cut substantially into
	the table top and even then there is no place for the sawdust to exit.

	Crosscutting on the table saw is difficult because it is tough to
	keep a board much longer than 4 ft square to the blade.  This
	problem can be minimized by building a good sliding panel cutter. Some
	table saws have built-in sliding tables, and aftermarket sliding table
	attachments are available for most saws. A couple of saws have sliding
	arbors, enabling them to work as inverted radial arm saws. The arbors
	typically don't slide as far as the length of many radial arms (for a
	review of 2 of these saws, see the April 1992 issue of FWW).

	Both saws are capable of accurate work. The radial arm saw, with its
	cantilevered arm attached to a cantilevered column, is typically less
	rigid than the table saw, which usually have their arbor trunions 
	bolted to the table in a wide pattern. Worn arm bearing in radial arm 
	saws can also contribute to wander in the cut. In table saws, play of
	the miter gauge bar will adversely affect accuracy.

	Both table saws and radial arm saws need to be aligned to work
	optimally. There are more aligning tasks to be performed on a radial
	arm saw than on a table saw. Radial arm saws typically require
	realignment more frequently than table saw, perhaps because of the 
	stresses put on the cantilevered assemblies.

	Radial arm saws don't need as much space around them as table saws for
	performing equivalent tasks. On the radial arm saw, boards are always
	oriented the same way whether you are ripping or crosscutting, so you
	need space to the left and right of the	blade, and only as wide as the
	widest board you're cutting. On the table saws, boards are oriented at 
	right angles depending on whether you're ripping or crosscutting. Thus,
	you need space in front and in back for ripping, and to the left and 
	right as well for crosscutting.

	It seems to be easier to engineer and manufacture a table saw than a
	radial arm saw, which has more moving parts that must withstand large
	forces without deflection or play. It can therefore be argued that if
	you're on a budget, a cheap table saw may work better for you than a 
	cheap radial arm saw.

	Some people say the radial arm saw is more dangerous because the blade
	is exposed above the work surface, and because the blade's location
	varies as the cut progresses. Angled crosscutting is particularly
	dangerous since the blade is now cutting where one normally holds the
	work. The spin direction of the blade tends to lift the work off of
	the table when ripping, and can pull the carriage into the work
	(resulting in binding of the saw or serious injury to a careless
	operator) in the crosscut position. So-called "safety-blades" have
	a shoulder in front of each tooth, thus limiting the amount of pull
	generated and reducing these tendencies.

	Some people say the table saw is more dangerous because you can't 
	see where the blade is like you can with the radial arm saw. On the
	other hand, the blade is always in the same spot on the table. The
	spin action of the table saw's blade tends to keep the work down on
	the table, but it can also throw the work, and off-cuts, back at the
	operator.

	Both machines are very dangerous and should be treated with much
	respect.

	As with all tool buying decisions, you should consider your intended
	applications, both now and in the future. The general consensus is that
	if you're building things like jungle gyms, house additions, or trim
	work (moldings), a radial arm saw may be best. If you're building 
	things like fine furniture or cabinets, a table saw may be more a
	more appropriate choice.

	A number of people have reported that the addition of a motorized
	miter box to a table saw is a satisfying combination.

	Taunton Press publishes a softcover book titled "Fine Woodworking on
	The Small Workshop." It contains a number of articles on designing and
	buying equipment for small shops, but is geared to furnituremaking.
	The majority of the recommendations are for getting a table saw first,
	with one writer claiming a bandsaw is the first tool to buy.

2). Which type of dado blade should I buy, the dial (wobble type) or
the stacking (chipper type)?

	The wobble type is very simple to use with infinite settings
	between approximately 1/4 inch and 13/16 inch. It does not produce
	true right angle cuts because of the design. 

	The chipper type doesn't have the same infinite setting for width.
	You can achieve nearly infinite settings by adding shims with
	thicknesses of 1/32, 1/64, 1/128, etc.  It will cut a square bottom
	on the dado, but it will also leave 2 grooves on the edges of the
	dado. The reason for this is that the blades are slightly larger
	than the chippers.  The larger blades are to reduce the splintering.
	The blades can be reground to be equal to the size of the chippers
	at the possible cost of increased splintering. Some say the grooves
	are a benefit because they provide relief for gluing joints. 

	Many people claim that the wobble type is easier to set up.

	The August 1991 Fine Woodworking further studies the features of
	the various types of dado blades.

3). How do I cut the perfect dado if both types of dado blades have
shortcomings?

	Your best bet would be to cut it with a router.

4). Should I buy a Sears blurfl?

	Most people agree that the Sears stationary power tools sold today
	aren't the same quality as the Sears tools sold 20 years ago.  
	It can be argued that if you can't afford to buy a Delta, then
	you should be looking at one of the Taiwanese clones rather than
	looking at Sears.

5). Should I buy a Taiwanese clone blurfl?

	It depends on how much money you have. If you can afford the
	Delta blurfl you should probably get it. Buyers should be
	wary that not all Taiwanese clones are quality machines. The
	general consensus is that Grizzly has good quality control.

	It should be noted that some of Delta tools are now being made
	in Taiwan. One would hope that Delta quality control is better than
	some of the cheaper imports.


6). How do I remove paint?

	There are many ways to strip paint from wood.

	Paint can be removed by scraping and/or sanding.
	Paint can be removed by using chemical paint removers.
	Paint can be removed by using heat.
	Paint can be removed by sandblasting.
	Paint can be removed by a new product known as Peel-Away.
	Rumor has it that oven cleaner also works.

	If you know of another way to remove paint please feel free to pass
	the information along. 

7). Should I use a hot melt glue gun for my next project?

	The general consensus is that hot melt glue is not adequate
	for woodworking projects. However, hot melt glue guns can
	have a place in the shop. Many people like to use them for
	tacking items together such as when building forms or jigs.

8) Where can I get plans for the New Yankee Workshop projects?

	Plans for any of Norm's projects can be ordered for $7.50 from

        (project name)
        New Yankee Workshop
        P.O. Box 645
        Bedford, MA  01730

	Videos, which include a copy of the plans, cost $24.95 plus shipping
	and handling, from 800-272-0280.  Both the address and phone number
	are given at the end of each show.

	Most of the projects from the first two seasons are in the two
	New Yankee Workshop books.  For the workbench, one important
	dimension is *not* given in the book, though it can, I think,
	be calculated.

9) What is the best woodworking magazine?

	There are many good woodworking magazines. Two that are frequently
	recommended in this group are Fine Woodworking and Woodsmith.

	Fine Woodworking is a bit on the artsy side and more for the
	experienced woodworker. It does not get into the small details
	of a project.

	Woodsmith provides much more details for projects. Woodsmith is
	well suited for both the amateur and experienced woodworker.

10) What is a board foot?

	A board foot is a common unit used in the measurement of wood.
	It is equal to 1 foot length x 1 foot width x 1 inch thick.
	It should be noted that the thickness is nominal thickness.
	After drying and surfacing the usual thickness of a 1 inch
	board is 13/16.

	A board 10 feet long x 1 foot wide x 2 inches thick would be
	equal to 20 board feet.

11) What is the correct way to handle the glue squeeze out problem?

	Use the right amount of glue.  The (obvious) danger is a glue
	starved joint.

	 Wipe off the excess glue immediately with a damp sponge or paper
	towel.  This method gets mixed reviews.  Some claim the water-glue
	mixture will soak into the wood and show up when the piece is finished.
	Others say that this is not a problem.  The effectiveness of this
	method probably depends on the type of wood and finish that are used.

	Allow the glue to harden somewhat (1/2 - 2 hrs) and then
	chisel/scrape it off.  Some recommend removing the glue after it
	begins to film over.

	Either finish the pieces ahead of time or apply paste wax.  This
	should prevent the glue from sticking.  The problem with this is
	removing the paste wax prior to finishing.

	Use a plastic drinking straw cut at 45 degrees to scoop the glue
	out of the inside corner.  As the straw fills up, it can be trimmed to
	provide a fresh surface.

12) What books should I purchase to learn about various aspects of woodworking?

	Thanks to Ken Smith (kensmith@cs.Buffalo.EDU) for providing the
	ISBN numbers along with a couple of additions to the list.

	GENERAL WOODWORKING
		Cabinetmaking and Millwork - John L. Feirer
			ISBN 0-02-675950-0
		New Yankee Workshop - Norm Abram
			ISBN 0-316-00454-5
		Classics From The New Yankee Workshop - Norm Abram
			ISBN 0-316-00455-3
		Mostly Shaker - Norm Abram
			ISBN 0-316-00473-1
		Encyclopedia of Furniture Making - Ernest Joyce
			ISBN 0-8069-6441-3


	FINISHING
		The Woodfinishing Book - Michael Dresdner
			ISBN 1-56158-037-6

	INTRODUCTORY WOODWORKING
		Basic Woodworking - Sunset Books
			ISBN 0-376-0-1628-0

	JOINERY
		Tage Frid Teaches Woodworking: Joinery Tools and Techniques
				- Tage Frid
			ISBN 0-918804-03-5
		Tage Frid Teaches Woodworking: Shaping, Veneering, Finishing
				- Tage Frid
			ISBN 0-918804-11-6 (out of print though)
		Tage Frid Teaches Woodworking: Furniture Projects
				- Tage Frid
			ISBN 0-918804-40-X


	TOOLS
		Router Jigs and Techniques - Patrick Spielman
			ISBN 0-8069-6694-7
		200 Original Shop Aids & Jigs for Woodworkers -Rosario Capotosto

	WOOD
		Understanding Wood - R. Bruce Hoadley
			ISBN 0-918804-05-1

13) How do I finish toys so that they are non-toxic?

	a.  Behlens Salad Bowl Finish.  This product has been approved by
	    the FDA for use on objects that will come in contact with
	    food.  It produces a nice, semi-gloss finish.
	b.  Any vegetable oil. Could become rancid after a period of time.
	c.  Walnut oil.  It reacts with the air and hardens into a true
	    finish.  It works particularly well when the oil is heated
	    and the item is dipped into the warm oil. Available at health
	    food or large grocery stores.  Don't buy the gourmet stuff!
	d.  Mineral oil or vaseline.
	e.  Water-based polyurethanes.  These are new products which are
	    very different from the more familiar oil-based
	    polyurethanes.  They are totally non-toxic, dry quickly, and
	    have no strong odors when applying.
	f.  Pure Tung Oil. It has no driers or solvents. It is essentially
	    just a vegetable oil but produces a nice finish that won't go
	    rancid. Use only Tung Oil that is "pure".
	g.  Rumor has it that shellac is also safe once it dries. I have
	    been unable to verify this.
	h.  Leave items unfinished.

14) What size drill bit do I use for a wood screw?

  Screw Gage    Shank    Shank     Pilot     Pilot
   Number        Hole    Size      Soft Wd   Hard Wd
       0         1/16    .060      1/64      1/32
       1         5/64    .073      1/32      1/32
       2         3/32    .086      1/32      3/64
       3         7/64    .099      3/64      1/16
       4         7/64    .112      3/64      1/16
       5         1/8     .125      1/16      5/64
       6         9/64    .138      1/16      5/64
       7         5/32    .151      1/16      3/32
       8         11/64   .164      5/64      3/32
       9         3/16    .177      5/64      7/64
      10         3/16    .190      3/32      7/64
      11         13/64             3/32      1/8
      12         7/32    .216      7/64      1/8
      14         1/4     .242      7/64      9/64
      16         17/64   .268      9/64      5/32
      18         19/64   .294      9/64      3/16
      20         21/64   .320      11/64     13/64

15) How do I finish the edge of plywood?
	a) Wood tape. It comes in 2 forms, one that can be ironed on, and
	   one that can be contact cemented on. The tape is approximately
	   1 inch wide, and can be trimmed with a plane, router, or knife.
	b) Glue strips of wood, either purchased or cut from lumber.

16). Which saw blade should I buy?
	There is an excellent article on evaluating carbide tipped
	sawblades in issue #72 of Fine Homebuilding (March 1992).

	To summarize the article:

	An expensive blade will typically last longer than a cheap
	blade and the cost difference is made up by the number of
	extra sharpenings available from the investment.

	A blade that has been tensioned will run truer and cost more
	than a blade that hasn't been tensioned.

	Carbide blades will last up to 60 times longer than steel blades.

17). Where are the archives for rec.woodworking?
	There are 2 archives that I know about.

	The first is ftp.cs.purdue.edu in /pub/sjc/woodworking. Currently
	it contains a list of Woodsmith plans.

	The second is ftp.cs.rochester.edu in /pub/rec.woodworking. Currently
	it contains summaries of past discussions of tools, some
	safety related notes, and some of the FAQ postings. Below is
	the current list of files available for ftp from cs.rochester.edu:

		 15496 Sep 28 14:48 address
		128083 Oct  7 11:36 bandsaw
 		 51637 Sep 28 15:21 biscuit_joiners
  		  6125 Oct 28 09:13 crib_safety
 		 42264 Oct  1 09:05 dust_collect
		106944 Sep 29 09:29 jointer
 		 15746 Sep 28 16:03 miter_saw
 		 16610 Oct  5 13:39 motors
 		 52704 Sep 29 10:51 planer
 		 44905 Oct  1 14:15 radial_saw
		140134 Oct  6 13:01 routers
 		 54977 Feb 19 11:19 ryobi.bt3000
 		 48837 Oct 27 10:35 sander_belt
 		 42432 Oct 27 10:39 sander_misc
 		 47661 Oct 27 10:40 sander_random-orbit
  		  7975 Feb  5 12:44 sawzall
 		 34745 Oct  1 09:23 scrollsaw
 		 27066 Nov 12 11:27 shop_heat
 		 26377 Oct 28 09:17 toy_safety

18). Where can I find cradle plans?

	1.  Garrett Wade
		$9.95 for plans for a "rocking cradle
		item number 14A03.SA in their 1993 tools catalog

	2.  The Woodworkers' Store
		$4.95 for plans for a "four post cradle"
		item number 40360 in their 1991-2 catalog

	3.  The August 1990 issue of Fine Woodworking has an article about
		making a cradle.

	4. Bartley offers a cradle kit for $199.  If it's up to the quality
		of their other kits, this should be good.

	5. Woodsmith issue #48 - cradle with frame and panel ends with
		arched-top panels.


19). Where can I find futon plans?

	1. TODAYS WOODWORKER JULY/AUG 1989, VOL 1 NO. 4
		Queen size futon folded in half length wise.
		Very attractive Futon sofa bed frame for queen size
		futon (possibly Swedish modern). Unfolds to make bed,
		breaks down for moving.  Elegant design with lots of
		mortise and tenon joinery.

	2. WOODWORKER'S JOURNAL NOV/DEC 1992 VOL 16 NO. 6
		"Standard" futon frame for standard 2 fold futon.
		Classic bi fold futon frame for queen size futon. The
		plans claim to be (and appear to be) appropriate for
		"even beginning woodworkers".

	3. Fine Woodworking    July/August '89 NO. 77

	4. Specialty Furniture Designs (800-892-4026)
		Design "WSN-15" $14.95
		Catalog $2.00
		Attractive (modern) Sofa like futon frame fro singe fold
		futon (futon folds once (the long way)).  Plans for both
		twin (39 x 75) and full (54 x 75).
		Plans are a large single sheet of blue print like drawings
		with associated text, construction looks reasonable and
		pictures of the finished project look good, but the plans
		are a bit intimidating

	5. Popular Woodworking SEP 1992, issue #68
		"Knock-Down Couch"
		Attractive Mission / Craftsman like design for a sturdy,
		knock-down couch. The plans are not specifically for
		futons but could be easily adapted to a single fold futon
		(might not need to be adapted).


20). Where can I get information about particle board?

	The following was provided by Stavros Macrakis (macrakis@osf.org)
	and was added to the FAQ with his permission.

	*********************************************************************
	For technical information on particleboard (PB), the National
	Particleboard Association puts out some very nice free pamphlets,
	which I summarize below.  Although they are basically addressed to
	industrial users, they cover particleboard joint techniques quite well
	for the rest of us.  Some of the facts about joints are very surprising.

	I've tried to summarize the essential information below, but you can
	also order copies from: NPA, 18928 Premiere Court, Gaithersburg,
	MD 20879.

	Specifier's Guide to PB and MDF

  	Abstract
		There are 15 ANSI grades of particleboard, with diverse
  	properties.  For instance, face screwing strength varies from 90-450
  	lb, stiffness from 80,000-500,000 psi.  Recommendations are given
  	for matching grade to use.

	Dowel Holding Strength of PB and MDF

  	Abstract
		Dowels joints are one of the cost common adhesive-based
  	furniture assembly joints.  Dowelling is a simple, inexpensive, and
  	reliable means of making butt and miter joints.  Joint strength is
  	largely determined by the holding power of the dowels.  Use good
  	quality dowels, diameter <= 0.5x the stock thickness.  The longer
  	the dowel, the greater the strength.  Holes should be 0.005"
  	oversized for edges, same as dowel on faces.  Use 60%+ solids
  	content PVA adhesive, applying glue to both dowel and hole wall,
  	with slight squeeze-out.

	Adhesive-based Corner Joints for PB and MDF

  	Abstract
		The thicker the panel, the stronger the joint.  Simple butt
  	joints' strength is limited by delamination; glue blocks or edge
  	banding help.  Dowel joints are standard, and work well; they should be
  	glued only at the dowels, NOT between edge and face (!).  Four dowels
  	for 18" are standard.  Biscuits have equivalent strength, but are
  	easier to align at assembly.  The strength of a well-made simple miter
  	joint without reinforcement (dowels, etc.) is generally comparable to
  	that of dowelled butt joints (!); dowels add little strength, but
  	splines and biscuits do.  Rabbets 1/3-1/2 the depth of the panel make
  	strong joints, but tend to split.  Dados are better, but less
  	attractive.  Rabbet and dado butt corner joints (= dado and tenon =
  	dado box corner) combine a dado on one panel and a rabbet on the other.
  	Dowelled butt joints are stronger (!).  Dovetails are excellent, but
  	require precise and time-consuming machining.  Molded polyurethane
  	joints (plastic splines) are as strong as or stronger than dowel
  	joints.

	Metal Fasteners for PB and MDF

  	Abstract
		Screws, nails, and staples are widely used.  Screws are
  	strongest.  The type of screw affects strength by only +-10% (!), but
  	PB screws are less likely to break.  Screw diameter affects strength
  	little, but screw length directly affects it.  Screw diameter should
  	not exceed 20% of stock thickness.  High internal bond strength PB
  	holds screws better.  Edge screws have half the strength of face
  	screws.  Use full-length pilot holes; shorter holes do not increase
  	strength.  Ideal tightening is 3/4 turn past flush on the face; 3/8
  	past flush on the edge.  Applying glue in the hole can increase
  	strength as much as 45%.
		Staples are used for attaching fabric, etc., and to hold glued
  	joints.
		Nails split panels, so should be >3" from a corner, and >6"
  	apart.  Ring shank nails hold better, plastic coated best.  Drive
  	them at an angle.

	Mechanically-based Corner joints for PB and MDF

  	Abstract
		Most bolt and cam joints are 20-50% weaker than dowelled joints.
  	Screw joints are comparable.  Plastic corner block units can be much
  	stronger in outward bending, but only comparably strong in inward.
  	Even when they are equally strong, mechanically-based joints are often
  	less rigid.  These systems are most useful for ready-to-assemble
  	manufactured kit furniture.

	Particle Shelf Systems (Builder's Bulletin #1)

		(not seen)


	All the above are free.  They also sell:

	Particleboard from Start to Finish $12.50

  	Abstract (theirs, I haven't seen this)
		Ten chapters (120pp) of useful information for users of PB.
  	Includes information on material handling and storage, sanding,
  	machining and tooling, laminating, wet finishing, edge treatments,
  	assembly and fastening, construction products, shelving and
  	formaldehyde.

	MDF from Start to Finish $7.50

  	Similar abstract, 42 pp.
	*********************************************************************
-- 
Jim Roche
roche@cs.rochester.edu
University of Rochester Computer Science Department Rochester, NY 14627


Article 21323 of rec.woodworking:
Path: samba.oit.unc.edu!concert!gatech!howland.reston.ans.net!usc!rutgers!rochester!roche
From: roche@cs.rochester.edu (James Roche)
Newsgroups: rec.woodworking,misc.consumers.house,news.answers,rec.answers,misc.answers
Subject: rec.woodworking Electric Motors Frequently asked Questions
Message-ID: <woodworking/motors_741368630@cs.rochester.edu>
Date: 29 Jun 93 15:46:14 GMT
Expires: 12 Aug 1993 15:43:50 GMT
Sender: roche@cs.rochester.edu (James Roche)
Reply-To: roche@cs.rochester.edu
Followup-To: poster
Organization: University of Rochester Computer Science Dept
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Frequency: monthly
Xref: samba.oit.unc.edu rec.woodworking:21323 misc.consumers.house:35642 news.answers:9592 rec.answers:1300 misc.answers:126

Archive-name: woodworking/motors
Last-modified: 3/30/93

This article answers many of the frequently asked questions about electric
motors. 


Motors:

    There are many kinds of motors, but this article considers only two
    kinds used frequently in woodworking tool applications: universal AC/DC
    motors and single-phase induction motors. Universal motors have brushes
    and commutators and are used for portable tools like routers, skilsaws,
    and electric drills.  Single-phase induction motors have no brushes,
    run only on AC electrical power, and are usually found on stationary
    tools such as table saws, drill presses, planers, and jointers.
    There are exceptions to this: some stationary tools use universal
    motors.

    Horsepower:  Motor horsepower is the most misunderstood (and misused)
    electric motor rating.  Neither motor, universal or induction, produces
    usable horsepower unless it is slowed down (by applied mechanical load)
    from no-load speed.  For induction motors, this slowdown is called
    "slip", and the horsepower "developed" by a motor increases with slip
    (to a simple approximation).  This is why induction motors are
    typically rated at 3450 rpm (two pole motor) or 1750 rpm (four pole
    motor).  The rating speed allows for slip from the "synchronous"
    speeds of 3600 and 1800 rpm, respectively.  Universal motors do not
    have a synchronous speed, but have a maximum no-load speed that depends
    upon the voltage applied to the motor.

    Most motors can put out a lot more maximum horsepower than they can
    sustain continuously.  By forcing more mechanical load on the motor,
    slowdown is increased and so therefore is the output horsepower.
    Mechanically, horsepower is torque times rpm, and increasing the
    mechanical load means that the rpm is slowed slightly and the drag
    torque is increased to obtain more torque times rpm.  Electrically,
    horsepower is volts times amps, and by conservation of energy, the
    mechanical output horsepower must be balanced by electrical input
    horsepower.  Since the voltage is relatively constant, this means that
    as a motor is loaded, the input current increases.  But the electrical
    winding impedance has a resistive component, so that higher current
    means more power dissipated in the windings.  In fact, the motor
    windings heat up proportional to the square of the motor current.
    Except for specially designed motors, the current that a motor can
    sustain continuously without burning out its windings is a fraction
    of the current at maximum load.

    Unscrupulous vendors sometimes publish maximum "developed" horsepower
    to make their products seem more capable than they really are.
    Developed horsepower may be two to five times the continuous duty
    rating of a motor.  Such products should be examined to discover the
    continuous duty rating to compare with other, more conservatively
    rated products.

    When the talk is of developed horsepower, the meaning is "peak" which
    for an induction motor is typically the local peak of the torque curve
    near synchronous speed.  A typical induction motor torque curve is:

          |
          |
          .                                            
          |.
          |  .                                        
   Dev.   _    .                                           .
          |      .                                    .      .
          |         .                               .         .
          |              .                        .            .
          |                       .             .
   Rated  _                              .                      .
          |
          |                                                      .
          |                                       
          |                                                       .
          |                                  
  Torque  |                                                        .
          |
          |
          |                                                         .
          |__________________________________________________________._
                                                                     |
          0                   RPM                              1800 or 3600


    As you can see, the curve is very steep in the operating region and in
    fact, the observed operation is typically that once you load the motor
    past the local maximum torque, the speed jumps to the corresponding
    point on the initial portion of the curve or simply stops.  The actual
    operation depends upon the shape of the curve near 0 RPM.

    The Rated HP is typically the torque level at which the motor can be run
    continuously without exceeding the temperature at which the winding
    insulation beaks down.  Since there is thermal mass involved, you can
    operate the motor at higher than rated torque for less than 100% of
    the time and not exceed this temperature if the motor is cool preceding
    the run etc. etc.  etc.

    Typically, two motors with different rated HP develop different HP in a
    ration close to the same as the difference in rating.


    The story is somewhat different for a universal motor such as is used on
    most hand held tools.  In these motors, for a given input voltage, the
    torque goes up as the speed goes down.  The more you load them, the slower
    they run until they stall, at which point their torque is a maximum.
    In this case, the developed horsepower is a the point along the torque
    curve where the speed X torque is a maximum.  As with the induction motor,
    the rated horsepower means you can run the motor there at 100% duty cycle.
    Again, you can load the motor more and it will produce more torque but you
    may only do this on a limited basis.

    The final word is heat.  If you exceed the winding insulation temperature
    rating, you will fail the insulation and ruin the motor ( or pop the
    thermal cutout if so equipped). 



    Application areas:  Universal motors are compact, have high starting
    torque, can run at high rpm, and deal well with rapidly varying
    loads.  They are often used with triac or thyristor speed controls.
    This makes them ideal for portable power tools.  Single-phase
    induction motors are efficient, have a limited rpm selection,
    are relatively heavy and bulky, and are almost maintenance-free.
    They work well in stationary tools that run at one rpm or that have
    a variable-speed transmission.

    Voltage: Both kinds of motors are supplied in popular mains voltages
    (115 or 230) but only induction motors are supplied with winding
    taps that allow either voltage to be selected.  As far as the motor
    is concerned, there is no difference in efficiency when selecting
    either 115 or 230 volts.  This is because such motors have two
    identical sets of windings that are connected in parallel for the lower
    voltage and in series for the higher.  Neither connection results
    in the individual windings seeing a different voltage.  However,
    inadequate wiring can make a difference to motor operation, because
    higher current at 115 volts may give unacceptable wiring voltage drops
    in some shops or garages.  Some wiring voltage drop is expected and
    built into the motor rating.  Nominal pole transformer output (to
    your house) is about 120/240 volts.  Motors are rated for 115/230
    volt operation, which allows for 5/10 volts wiring voltage drop.
    More voltage drop than this can cause low starting torque and
    overheating at rated load.

    115 or 230 volt operation makes no difference to your power company
    either.  The watt-hour meter at your electrical entry measures watts
    regardless of the voltage used.  Your power company does not give
    you a single watt for free, and your PUC (Public Utility Commission)
    won't let the power company charge more than the legal rates.
    Watt-hour meter accuracy is a matter of law in most States.

    Current:  Motors have a nominal current rating which is supposed to be
    the current at rated horsepower and rated voltage.  A motor will not
    draw exactly rated current except in the unlikely circumstance that
    the voltage applied is exactly the rated voltage and the load applied
    is exactly the rated horsepower.  As a matter of fact, most woodworking
    tools spend much of their life spinning without applied load and drawing
    only a small fraction of nameplate rated current.  When the tool begins
    to cut, motor current varies widely depending upon cutting load.  In
    some tools which have relatively small motors, motor current may approach
    several times rated current as the tool is momentarily loaded close
    to stall or breakdown torque.  An exception to this wide variation
    would be something like the motor driving the fan on a dust
    collection system; such motors operate at about rated horsepower all
    the time because the fan presents a constant load.

    For both universal and single-phase induction motors, the full-load
    current is given by

        I  =  (746 * hp) / (eff * pf * voltage)

    where eff is efficiency, pf is power factor, and the others are
    obvious.  In AC systems, the voltage and current waveforms are
    (nominally) sine waves and may differ in phase from each other
    by an angle called the phase angle.  There are 360 phase angle
    degrees in one sinusoidal cycle.  Power factor is the cosine of
    the phase angle, and for motors this angle is normally between
    zero and 90 degrees, current lagging voltage.  In DC systems,
    there is no phase angle, and power factor is defined as 1.0.

    Typical values for single-phase induction motors running at 115
    volts AC are pf = 0.8 and eff = 0.9.  This gives a rule-of-thumb
    value for amps/horsepower at 115 volts of

          9 amps / horsepower

    This figure is probably OK for rule-of-thumb comparison of induction
    and universal motors or reasonability checks as long as you
    remember that it is based on typical values.

    If you are contemplating operating a 115 volt universal motor
    on DC, performance should be slightly better at 115 volts DC
    than it was on AC.  The proper voltage to use is 115 volts DC.
    This is because AC voltages are given as RMS values, which
    are their power-equivalent DC values.  The tool will actually
    endure less voltage stress under DC operation because the
    peak voltage experienced under DC is 0.707 times the AC peak
    voltage.  Switches and contacts, however, may not last as long.

    Starting current can be as much as ten times rated motor current.
    This is usually not a problem for the circuit breaker feeding the
    motor, because modern circuit breakers are typically rated to trip
    instantaneously at about ten times breaker nameplate rating.  For
    currents less than the instantaneous value, the breaker trips due
    to internal heater elements which mimic the heatup characteristics
    of the wiring the breaker is supposed to protect.  Since starting
    currents last only a second or two (unless the motor is jammed),
    motors usually will not trip circuit breakers on starting current if
    the breaker is rated at higher current than the motor nameplate
    current.  This may not be true if you start the motor on a circuit
    which is already loaded close to rating.

    A motor may trip your circuit breaker on time-overcurrent (the
    heaters) even if the motor nameplate current rating appears to be
    within the breaker rating.  This can happen if you continuously
    overload the motor; motor current will then be several times the
    nameplate rating.  There may be other signs of this.  The motor may
    become extremely hot (spit sizzles on the casing).  This is General
    Electric's way of telling you to slow down.

    Breakdown torque:  Single-phase induction motors, unless they are
    designed for torquemotor operation, have a "breakdown" torque rating.
    This refers to the motor torque-versus-rpm curve, which has a peak
    torque somewhere between zero rpm and rated rpm.  If the motor is
    running and load is applied, the motor slows and torque increases
    until breakdown torque is reached.  At this point, further rpm
    reduction causes a reduction of motor-supplied torque, and the motor
    rpm reduces rapidly to zero (it "breaks down").  This is why a saw,
    for instance, appears to suddenly stall as it is overloaded.

    Ventilation: Most motors have one of two kinds of ventilation: fan-
    cooled open housing, or totally enclosed, fan-cooled (TEFC) housing.
    In the former type, a fan attached to the motor shaft draws air
    through the internal parts of the motor and blows it out of
    ventilation slots cut into the motor housing.  Most universal motors
    are of this type because of the need to cool the brushes and to
    exhaust brush carbon dust and commutator copper fragments.  In the
    TEFC type, the motor housing is completely enclosed and no air
    gets to the internal parts of the motor.  Instead, internal heat
    is conducted through the metal housing to fins, where air blown
    by an external fan removes the heat.  Some induction motors have
    this kind of (more expensive) ventilation and they are often used
    in applications where excessive dust or flammable conditions exist.

    Drive gear:  Surprisingly enough, even though many people will look
    at motor horsepower rating, they often completely ignore the drive
    gear attaching the motor to its load.  The drive gear is often a clue
    to the real power rating of the motor-drive combination.  It's
    difficult to determine the rating of enclosed gears, but v-belts
    can give an immediate visual clue.  While larger pulleys increase
    a v-belt rating, a nominal rule of thumb is about one horsepower
    per 1/2 inch v-belt.  Two 5/8 v-belts on large pulleys may be good
    for 4 or 5 horsepower.  One small belt on a motor which "develops"
    3 horsepower is cause for some suspicion.  Actual belt drive ratings
    can be found in manufacturers handbooks (see Gates, for example) or
    in Machinery's Handbook.

    Motor Starters:  Motor starters are big relays mounted in expensive
    metal boxes with heater overloads matched to the motor they start.
    They serve two purposes: 1) The relay contacts are heavy duty and
    are rated for the motor starting current.  Delicate contacts, such
    as those on a pressure switch, will fail if used directly to
    start a large motor.  Delicate contacts are therefore wired to
    operate the motor starter relay rather than the motor.  2)  Wall-
    mounted circuit breakers are designed to protect building wiring,
    not motors plugged into wall receptacles.  If your electrical box
    circuit breaker trips before your motor burns up, it is incidental,
    not on purpose.  However, motor starters are designed to trip on
    heater overload before the motor they start burns up.

    How much horsepower:  This question is often asked and has no easy
    answer.  This is because the amount of horsepower you need depends
    upon your patience, your preferences, and the way you use the
    machine in question.  Here are some pros and cons.  A larger
    horsepower motor (and associated drive gear) has a thicker shaft
    and is typically more robust than a smaller horsepower motor.  It
    responds to overloads and hard cuts more strongly, and may not stall
    in your application.  It does not use very much more power, since
    electric motors use only power demanded plus some motor losses (which
    are somewhat larger for higher rated motors).  On the down side, the
    initial expense of the motor and drive gear is greater.  Higher
    horsepower often requires 230 volt wiring.  The motor and associated
    drive gear and mountings are heavier.  A smaller horsepower motor
    is cheaper, lighter, and may run on 115 volts.  For a careful worker,
    the torque supplied may be sufficient.  On the down side, the tool
    may stall more often and wet wood may be impossible to cut.  The
    drive gear may be less robust and may require more maintenance.  If
    the tool is operated in overload, the 115 volt circuit breaker may
    trip.




-- 
Jim Roche
roche@cs.rochester.edu
University of Rochester Computer Science Department Rochester, NY 14627


Article 21321 of rec.woodworking:
Path: samba.oit.unc.edu!concert!gatech!howland.reston.ans.net!usc!rutgers!rochester!roche
From: roche@cs.rochester.edu (James Roche)
Newsgroups: rec.woodworking,news.answers,rec.answers
Subject: rec.woodworking Frequently Requested Addresses
Message-ID: <woodworking/addresses/list_741368630@cs.rochester.edu>
Date: 29 Jun 93 15:44:27 GMT
Expires: 12 Aug 1993 15:43:50 GMT
Sender: roche@cs.rochester.edu (James Roche)
Reply-To: roche@cs.rochester.edu
Followup-To: poster
Organization: University of Rochester Computer Science Dept
Lines: 579
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Archive-name: woodworking/addresses/list
Last-modified: 5/12/93


Some of the more popular addresses/phone numbers used by woodworkers are 
included below. If you want to see some addresses added to this list please
let me know.

This is compiled from messages that have been posted to the group over the
past few years, and from vendors that I have used. This is not an endorsement
of any of the vendors listed.

*******************************************************************

Advanced Machinery Sales (AMS)		(302) 322-2226
POB 312
New Castle, DE 19720
	Selling Hegner, Felder, AMI

AMT (American Machine and Tool Company)		(215) 948-0400
Fourth Avenue and Spring Street
Royersford, PA 19468
	Name is somewht of a misnomer since much if not all the tools
	are imports. Similar to Grizzly catalog with more hand tools.

Arrowsmith & Lang-Borne				(304) 584-4246
Washington & Main St. Box 126			(800) 544-4283
Lumberport WV 26386
	Dust collector parts. Variety of sizes and gauges. Also
	has a booklet on dust collection for woodworkers.

Ballew Saw & Tool			(800) 288-7483
325 S. Kimbrough			(417) 865-7511
Springfield, MO 65806
	Shaper cutters, amana router bits, freud blades.

The Bartley  Collection			(800) 787-2800
29060 Airpark Drive
Easton MD 21601
	Antique Reproduction Furniture Kits, typically 17th. 18th. century
	stuff, the woods of choice are Mahogany and Cherry.  The pieces
	range from small tables, stools, mirrors, etc to large highboys,
 	four poster beds etc.  Prices for kits ranges from about $100 to
	$3,000. No plans are available.

Berea Hardwoods				(216) 243-4452
125 Jacqueline Drive,
Berea OH 44017
	"Specializing in unusual woods, but also a good source for
	more mundane species.  The proprietor is fun to talk to."

Bob Morgan's Woodworking Supplies	(502) 456-2545
1123 Bardstown Road
Louisville, KY 40204
	Hardwoods, veneers, veneering tools and hand tools.

Bratton Machinery & Supply Inc.
1015 Commercial ST.
PO Box 20408
Tallahassee FL 32316
	[no other information]

Bridge City Tool Works			(800) 253-3332
        Squares and straightedges.  Very high prices and quality.

Brookstone				Orders: (603) 924-9541 (24 hours)
127 Vose Farm Road			Customer service: (603)924-9511 9-5 EST
Peterborough, NH 03458
	Unusual tools with a number of gadgets. Nice catalog. Brookstone
	has a numnber of stores around the country. You can sometimes find
	specific items for less elsewhere.

Cascade Tool Co.			(800) 235-0272
Box 848					In WA 236-027M-F 7-7 PT
Mercer Island, WA
	Router and shaper bits. All kinds.

Cherry Tree Toys			(614) 484-4363 (24 hours)
POB 369,
Belmont, OH 43718
	Wood toys. Kits, parts, plans, books.

Chown Hardware & Machinery		(800) 547-1930
333 N.W. 16th Ave			Oregon (800) 452-7634
Portland, OR 97209			Local (503) 243-6500
	This company has been around a long time, since 1879.
	Nice catalog, fair prices, and a flyer that they send out
	every month with the current specials.

Constantines				(800) 223-8087
2050 Eastchester Road			In NY (800)822-1202 -disconnected 10/92
Bronx, NY 10461
	Probably the oldest woodworking company in the country (176 years)
	Wide selection of tools, woods, veneers, and hardware.

Craft Supplies USA			(801) 373-0917
1287 East 1120 South
Provo, Utah  84601
	They specialize in wood turning supplies, Lathes, Bandsaws
	Turning Chisels, Chucks, some wood, and parts for turnings;
	like pepper mills, etc.

Craftman's Corner, Inc.			 515-265-3239
4012 N.E. 14th Street
P.O. Box AP
Des Moines, Iowa  50302
	[no other information]

Craftsman Wood Service Company		(708) 629-3100
1735 W. Cortland CT			(312) 629-3100
Addison, IL 60101
	Small format hand tools and related supplies. Veneer,hard wood,turning
	blocks,excellent selection of hardware, books  and plans and toys.

Craftwoods				(800) 468-7070
2101 Greenspring Dr.
Tionium MD 21093
	Common and wxotic woods, carving tools, bird carving items,
	 books, videos, and classes.

Cryder Creek Wood Shoppe		(800) 642-9663
Box 19					In NY (607) 356-3303 9-4 EST
Whitesville, NY 14897
	Woodturner's supplies

Eagle America				(216) 286-9334
PO Box 1099				(216) 286-7643 (FAX)
Chardon, Ohio 44024			(800) 872-2511 (orders)
	Router Bits

Econ-Abrasives				(800) 367-4101
PO Box 865021				In TX (214) 377-9779
Plano, TX, 75086-5021			M-F 7:30-5:00 CST
	They carry a wide range of sandpaper (belts, sheet, discs,
	rolls, drums).  Good prices, eg: 3x21 belts @ .77,
	4x24 belts @ .94
  	Minimum order around $20, $4.25 shipping, take MC/VISA.
	The people on the phone KNOW sandpaper - they can help with
	most any abrasives question.

Factory Lumber Outlet
200 Shrewsbury St
Boylston MA
	"Large number of hand tools, books and plans.  Separate wood catalog.

The Fine Tool Journal
Iron Horse Antiques
PO Box 4001
Pittsford, VT 05763
	Publication for vintage hand tools.

Foley-Belsaw				Orders: 800 468-4449
6301 Equitable Road			In MO 800 892-8789
Box 419593
Kansas City, MO 64141 
	Large shop equipment: Planers, table saws, combination machines,
	even a sawmill! They send out several free catalogs a year and have
	a number of special offers throughout the year.

Frog Tool Co				(312) 648-1270
700 W. Jackson Blvd.
Chicago, Il 60661
 	Hundreds of woodworking books. All kinds, all woodworking subjects.

Garrett Wade				Orders: (800) 221-2942
161 Avenue of the Americas		Customer service: (212)807-1155 M-F 9-5
New York, NY 10013
	One of the finest catalogs. A woodworker's bible of tools. GW also
	has a separate hardware catalog.
	"The prices are good considering the lavish catalog."

Grizzly Imports
2406 Reach Road			POB 2069
Williamsport, PA 17701		Bellingham, WA 98227
(717) 326-3806			(206) 647-0801
(800) 523-4777			(800) 541-5537
M-F 8:30-5:30			M-F 8:30-5:30
Sat 8:30-1
	Shop Machinery - Imports.
	Does not ship outside US.

Hartville Hardware			(800) 345-2396 M-S 8:30-5
940 W. Maple Street
Hartville, OH 44632
	Brand name tools. Big discount place. No catalog available.

Hida Tool & Hardware Company			(415) 524-3700
1333 San Pablo Avenue		Store hours: T-S 9-5, Sun 11-4 Closed Mon
Berkeley, CA 94702
	Japanese Hand Tools. Excellent quality saws, planes, chisels, knives
	etc. Prices are commensurate with the quality but reasonable. Hida is
	across from REI in Berkeley.

Highland Hardware			(800) 241-6748
1045 N Highland Ave. NE			(404) 872-4466
Dept F  Atlanta GA 30306
	Good source for glues, finishes, etc.  Has Delta tools, good router
	and bisquit joiner selections.  Carries MiniMax and Robland
	stationary tools also.

Hiller Hardware				(803) 779-3131 M-F 9-5, Sat 9-1
1411 Assembly Street
POB 1762
Columbia, SC 29202
	Power Tools mostly. Delta, Porter-Cable, Ryobi, Bosch, Inca, Skil,
	Makita, Milwaukee, Freud, and others.

Industrial Abrasives			(800) 428-2222
642 N 8th Street			In PA (800) 222-2292 
Box 14955
Reading PA 19612
	Sandpaper, sanding drums, assorted abrasives.

International Tool Coorporation		(800) 338-3384
1939 Tyler St.				Florida (800) 221-6767
Hollywood, Florida 33020		Mon-Fri 7:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m EST
					305-927-0291 - Fax
	Bosch, Bostich, Delta, Fein, Freud, Hitachi, HTC, Milwaukee,
	Panasonic, Porter Cable, Rolair, Ryobi, Skil, Stanley.
	All Bosch Router bits are 40% off of list price.

JET Woodworking Machinery and Supplies		(800) 274-6848
POB 1477					(206) 572-5000
Tacoma, WA 98401
	Similar to Grizzly. Warehouses throughout the country.

J. Philip Humfrey			(800) 387-9789
3241 Kennedy Road, Unit 7,		In Canada (416)293-8624
Scarborough, Ontario M1V 2J9
(800) 387-9789 In Canada (416)293-8624
	Woodworking Machinery - Shop equipment, General, Excalibur, 
	Concord, Kraemer.

John Stortz and Son			(215) 627-3855
210 Vine Street
Philadelphia, PA 19106
	This catalog may not quite fit into this catagory but Storz is
	one of the only manufacturers of these kinds of tools. They specialize
	in the production of tools for masonry, roofing, shipbuilding, and
	cooperage. They normally sell to the trades and don't take chargecards.

Jordan International Co			(408) 429-8329
1303 Elmer St.
Belmont, CA 94002
	exotic hardwoods.

Klockit					(800) KLOCKIT 556-2548 M-F 8-8 Sat 8-4
POB 629
Lake Geneva, WI 53147
	Clock Kits. Mason & Sullivan catalog looked better.

Lab Safety Supply			(800) 356-0783 - Voice orders
PO Box 1368				(800) 543-9910 - Fax orders
Janesville, WI 53547-1368		(800) 356-2501 - Techline
					(800) 356-0722 - Customer Service
	Gloves, goggles, respirators. Excellent service. 500 page catalog.


Leichtung Workshops			(800) 321-6840 (24 hours)
4944 Commerce Parkway			In OH (216) 831-2555
Cleveland, OH 44128
	Kind of like Brookstone but gadget/tool ratio is much higher. 

Lee Valley Tools Ltd.			(613) 596-0350
P.O. Box 6295, Station J		(613) 596-6030 - FAX
Ottawa, Ont.				Mon-Thurs 9-6, Fri 9-9, Sat 9-5
K2A 1T4
	"Fine woodworking tools. Several stores.  They have a main catalogue, a
	couple of supplements a year, and a hardware catalogue,  Even if you
	don't understand tools at all, the main catalogue is worthwhile
	getting as a coffee table book: glossy paper and beautiful presentation.
	 It makes a wonderful read. They have everything from instrument-maker's
	to log builder's hand tools, Their bottom-of-the-line quality is quite
	servicable, and their top-of-the-line tools are Art, with accompanying
	prices.  The bottom line is: good selection, high quality, reasonable
	prices, *excellent* service. They design and manufacture many quality
	tools under the VERITAS label.

Lie-Nielsen Toolworks			(800) 327-2520
	Reproductions of discontinued Stanley planes in bronze.  Good quality.

Luthiers Mercantile			(800) 477-4437
PO Box 774				(707) 433-1823
Healdsburg, CA 95448			(707) 433-8802 - FAX
	Wood (esp. thin stock), hand tools, books, finishing and general
	supplies primarily for instrument builders, but also of general
	interest. 230 page catalog $10

Mason & Sullivan			(508) 778-0475 M-F 8-5
586 Higgins Crowell Road 		(508) 778-0477 (after hours)
West Yarmouth,				Customer service:(508) 778-1056
Cape Cod, MA 02673
	Clockbuilding related items. Kits, tools, the works.
	Acquired by Woodcraft - See Woodcraft entry.

McFeeley's Square Drive Screws		(800) 443-7937
712 12th Street				(804) 847-7136 - FAX
P.O. Box 3
Lynchburg VA 24505-0003
	Square drive screws in a huge number of styles and materials;
	screw-related tools; general woodworking stuff like finishes and
	clamps.  The square-drive screws are great and well-priced, the
	other stuff is about 10% higher than the cheapest I've seen.
	 Shipped via UPS the same day for my one order (so far).

Micro-Mark				(800) 225-1066
340 Synder Ave.
Berkeley Heights, NJ 07922
	Minature hand and power tools. 3" diameter table saws, mini
	drill presses, lathes, overhead mills, scroll saws,
	beltsander (1"X6"belt), bench grinder, router, radial arm saw,
	band saw, 4"disc sander, and lots of hand tools and accessories.
	Power miter with a maximum stock size of 3/8" thick by 3/4" deep
	at 90 degrees, 1/2" wide at 45 degrees.


MLCS Ltd.				(800) 533-9298
P.O. Box 4053
Rydal, PA  19046
	Router Bits

Moon's Saw Shop Supplies		(800) 447-7371
2531-39 N. Ashland Ave.
Chicago, IL 60614
	General woodworking supplies and router bits.  

National Particleboard Association
18928 Premiere Court
Gaithersburg ND 20879
	Technical information on particle board.

Northern Hydraulics			(800)553-5545  24 hrs, 7 days
P.O. Box 1499				Minn: (612)894-8310
Burnsville, MN  55337-0499		FAX (612)894-8310
	All kinds of stuff - some woodworking.  Engines, compressors,
	lawn equipment, chain saws, wood spliters, hydraulic fittings,
	air tools, mechanics tools, tool boxes, work benches, playground
	sets, sun glasses, leather jackets, tool kits, winches, trailers,
	jacks, wheels, tires, tractors and even watches.

	Woodworking power tools include Milwaukee, Makita, Bosch, Ryobi,
	Porter Cable, Jepson, B&D, Skil, Wen and Delta.  Mostly portable.
	Sorted by tool type.  Average prices.  136 pages.

Paxton Beautiful Woods			(513) 984-8200
Frank Paxton Lumber Co
7455 Dawson Road
Box 43335
Cincinnati OH 45243
	Wholesale and retail lumber, newsletter and classes.

Philipps Brothers Supply        	(800) 238-4466 (NY)
2525 Kensington Ave.            	(800) 544-4466 (USA)
Amherst, NY  14226-4999
	A large list of power tools for woodworkers and construction
	professionals.  Prices seem pretty good, shipping is usually included.

Pro-Shop				(312) 832-3803
Box 721
Elmhurst, IL 60126
	Woodworking machinery. Imports.

Quaker State Woodworking		(800) 776-5467
	Portable power tools, sanding supplies, clamps, back issues of
	Woodsmith magazine.

RBI					(800) 487-2623
P.O. Box 369
1801 Vine St.
Harrisonville, MO 64701
	RBI Hawk saws

R. Sorsky				(800) 345-4447
3845 N. Blackstone,			In CA (209) 227-2901
Fresno, CA 93726
	Woodworking books. Lots.

Schlosser Tool & Machinery		(800)627-7297
301 Bryant				CO (303)636-1311
Denver, CO  80219			FAX (303)937-9267
	Mostly power tools - industrial, stationary and portable.  Includes 
	Skil, Porter Cable, Delta, Makita, Hitachi, Blum, Bosch, Ryobi, 
	DeWalt, Beisemeyer, Powermatic and others.  Some hand tools like
	Sorby.  Sorted by tool type.  Average to high prices.  75 pages.

Sears
Sears Tower
Chicago. IL 60606
...and just about every other city in the country.
	Power and Hand Tools Specialog.

Seven Corners Ace Hardware		Ordering: 800-328-0457
(Tools on Sale)
216 West 7th St.			In MN: (612) 224-4859
St Paul, MN 55102			Hours: M-F 8-5:30 CST
	Big catalog. Emphasis on portable power tools but they carry a wide
	range of tools and accessories.  Prepaid freight. "..good experiences.

Seyco					(214) 278-3353
P.O. Box 472749
Garland, TX 75047
	Excalibur saws

Shopsmith				(800) 543-7586
	Stores all over the US.

Sporty's Tool Shop		Orders: (800)543-8633 M-F 9:30-8, Sat 11-3
Batavoia, OH 45103		Customer service: (513) 732-2411
	Some tools. Mostly random stuff for house and yard.

Stone Mountain Power Tool Corporation	(800) 262-9599
POB 2825				In GA (404) 446-8390
Norcross, GA
	Woodworking and Construction Tools. Name brands. Reasonable prices.

Tarheel Filing Co			(800) 322-6641
3400 Lake Woodard Drive
Raleigh, NC 27604
	Stationary power tools, hand held power tools, router bits,
	saw blades.

The Fine Tool Shops			(800) 533-5305
170 West Road				In NH 443-0409
POB 7091
Portsmouth, NH 03801
	Good catalog, selection and prices. "...fast, reliable service"
	Possibly out of business, nobody answers the phone.

The Sanding Catalog			(800) 228-0000
P.O. Box 5069
Hickory, NC 28603-5069
	Sandpaper and assorted abrasives.

The Taunton Press			(800) 888-8286
63 South Main St.
P.O. Box 355
Newtown, Conn.  06470-9971
	Publisher of Fine Woodworking, Fine Homebuilding and numerous
	quality books on woodworking and homebuilding

The Wood Store				(717) 297-4188
POB 125
Troy, PA 16947
(717) 297-4188
	Hardwoods, carving blocks, basket strips, dollhouse lumber.

The Woodworker's Store			Orders: (612) 428-2199 M-F 8-8 CST
21801 Industrial Blvd.			Customer service: (612) 428-2899
Rogers, MN 55374
	WWS has 8 stores around the country also. Hardwood, veneers.
	Very good selection of hardware. Hinges, slides, locks, catches,
	pulls and other accessories.

Tool Crib of the North			(800) 358-3096
	Formerly Acme Electric. Good power too selection. All magor brands
	including Delta, Elu, B&D, Skil, Makita, Milwaukee, Powermatic,
	Bosch, Freud, General, Hitachi. Free freight.

Tools Etc.
Dept 458411 510 East Main St
Louisville KY 40202
	[No other information]

Trendlines				Orders: (800) 767-9999
375 Beacham Street			      (800) 343-3248  Answering machine
Chelsea, MA 02150			Customer service: (617) 884-8882
	Woodworking tools and supplies. Good prices.

U.S General				Ordering: 1-800-645-7077
100 Commerical Street			Customer service: (516) 349-7275
Plainview, NY 11803

	**** APPARENTLY NO LONGER IN THE MAIL ORDER BUSINESS. ****
	Typical mail-order discount tool catalog. Name brand tools.
	Big catalog. Seem to be resonable prices. 24 hour phone.

Vandyke's Restorers			Orders: (800) 843-3320
4th Ave. & 6th St.			(605) 796-4425
PO Box 278
Woonsocket, South Dakota 57385
	Supplies for Upholstery, Antique Restoration, Taxidermy(!),
	wrought nails, several head patterns AND brass plated. Lots
	of antique reproduction hardware.

Warren Tool Co.				(914) 876-7817
Rt. 1 Box 14-A
Rhinbeck, NY 12572
	Carving tools (gouges, parting tools, tec) with interchangable
	bits/handles.

Whole Earth Access			(800)829-6300
822 Anthony Street			9AM to 6PM PST, 7 days a week
Berkeley, CA  94710			FAX (415)845-8846
	Hand Tools and Power Tools.  Sorted by type of equipment - not brand.
	Bosch, Porter Cable, Makita, Elu, AEG, Ryobi, Milwaukee, Hitachi,
	Skil, Panasonic, B&D, DeWalt and Delta.  Low to average prices.
	48 pages

Wilke Machinery Company			(717) 846-2800
120 Derry Ct.
York, PA 17402
	Woodworking machinery. Imports. Large selection.

Williams Tool & Hardware Supply (bankrupt) (800)788-0007       8AM-6PM CST M-F
2017 White Settlement Road		TX (817)335-4749    9AM-5PM CST Sa
Fort Worth, TX  76107			FAX (817)877-3150
	Stationary and portable power tools, hand tools and supplies.
	Includes Delta, Ryobi, Porter Cable, Hitachi, Bosch and Elu
	power tools.  Sorted by manufacturer.  Low prices.  32 pages.

Wood - Better Homes & Gardens		(800) 374-9663 subscription
Meredith Corporation			(800) 572-9350 back issues
1716 Locust St.
DesMoines IA 50336
	Publisher of Wood magazine

Woodcarver's Supply			(800) 284-6229 - Orders
P.O. Box 7500				(813) 698-0123 - Questions
Englewood, Florida  34295		(813) 698-0329 - Fax

Woodcraft				(800) 225-1153
41 Atlantic Avenue			From MA, HA, and AL call (617) 935-5860
PO Box 4000			M-F 8:30-6 EST Answering machine at other times
Woburn, MA 01888
Store at 313 Montvale Ave Woburn MA
	Wide range of tools for craftsman. Nice catalog, good prices, excellent
	delivery.

Wood Finishing Enterprises		414-871-0440
2438 North 48th Street
Milwaukee, Wis. 53210
	All types of finishing supplies.

Wood Finishing Supply Co. Inc		315-986-4517
1267 Mary Drive
Macedon, NY 14502
	All types of finishing supplies. The catalog also provides some
	good informationon how to use the finishes.

Woodhaven				(800) 344-6657
	They make router accessories (tables, jigs, fences, adjustment
	handles, inlay bushings, etc).  Prices ok (not great), quality is
	high (table inserts are of 3/8" Lexan, for instance).

Woodsmith				(800) 444-7002
P.O. Box 10740
Des Moines, Iowa  50347-0740
	Publisher of Woodsmith magazine

Woodworkers Hardware			(800) 383-0130
PO Box 784
St. Cloud, MN 56302
	Drawer slides and other cabinet hardware.

Woodworkers Supply of New Mexico	(800) 645-9292 8:30-5 MT M-F
5604 Alameda Place NE			(800) 321-9841
Albuquerque, NM 87113			(505) 821-0500
	Wide range of tools. Delta etc. Power tool emphasis.
	"...fast, reliable service"
	"Small but well rounded selection of hand tools, books etc."

"Woodwork: A Magazine For All Woodworkers"
Circulation Dept.
P.O. Box 1529
Ross, CA 94957
	Another general-interest woodworking magazine, with color and
	slick paper.  Appears to be aimed at people who aspire to being
	good enough to design and construct Fine Woodworking-quality
	projects, but aren't there yet.

Workbench				(816) 531-5730
KC Publishing Inc
4251 Pennsylvania Ave
Kansas City, Missouri 64111
	Publisher of Workbench magazine
-- 
Jim Roche
roche@cs.rochester.edu
University of Rochester Computer Science Department Rochester, NY 14627


Article 21322 of rec.woodworking:
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From: roche@cs.rochester.edu (James Roche)
Newsgroups: rec.woodworking,news.answers,rec.answers
Subject: rec.woodworking Frequently Requested Tool Reviews
Message-ID: <woodworking/tool-reviews_741368630@cs.rochester.edu>
Date: 29 Jun 93 15:45:23 GMT
Expires: 12 Aug 1993 15:43:50 GMT
Sender: roche@cs.rochester.edu (James Roche)
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Archive-name: woodworking/tool-reviews
Last-modified: 6/29/93

Readers of this group often request reviews of particular tools. This article
is meant to be a pointer to tool reviews/comparisons. It is not a complete
list of sources for tool reviews. If anyone has any additions please send
me a note and I will try to add it in.


Air Compressors
	Portable Air Compressors - Fine Homebuilding October 1988
	Compressed Air Systems - Fine Woodworking June 1990

Air Tools
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Air Tools - Workbench October 1988
	Selecting a Spray Gun - Fine Woodworking June 1990

Bandsaws
	Shopping for Bandsaw Blades - Wood December 1989
	Bandsaws - Wood October 1990
	Bandsaw Roundup - Wood April 1992
	Band Saws - Popular Woodworking September 1992

Belt Sanders
	Portable Belt Sanders - Wood October 1990
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Benchtop Belt/Disc Sanders - Workbench September 1991

Biscuit Joiners
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Plate Joiners - Workbench April 1988
	Plate Joiners - Fine Woodworking June 1989
	Buying a Biscuit Joiner - Wood December 1992

Carvers
	Power Carvers - Fine Woodworking April 1991

Circular Saws
	Portable Circular Saws - Wood October 1990
	Portable Circular Saws (AKA sidewinders) - Fine Homebuilding November 1990

Clamps
	The Smart Shoppers Guide to Clamps - Wood February 1991

Cordless Screwdrivers
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Cordless Screwdrivers - Workbench April 1990
	Cordless drill/drivers - Wood October 1990

Cordless Drills
	Cordless drill/drivers - Wood October 1990
	Cordless Wonders - Wood April 1991

Cut-Off Saws
	Portable Electric Cut-Off Saws - Fine Homebuilding September 1990

Drill Bits
	Buying Forstner Bits - Wood February 1991

Drills
	The Great Electric Drill Shootout - Wood August 1990
	Survey of 3/8" VSR Drills - Fine Homebuilding June 1993

Drill Presses
	Drill Presses - Wood October 1990

Dust Collectors
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Dust Collection Systems - Workbench February 1989

Heat Guns
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Heat Guns - Workbench February 1991

Jointers
	Machines the Give You the Edge Quickly and Accurately - Wood October 1989
	Two New Jointers - Fine Woodworking February 1990
	Jointers - Wood October 1990

Lathes
	Lathes - Wood October 1990
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Lathes - Workbench May 1991

Miter Saws
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Power Miter Saws - Workbench June 1988
	Getting an Angle on Compound Miters - Fine Homebuilding January 1990
	Power Mitersaws - Wood February 1992

Radial Arm Saws
	Radial-arm Saws - Wood October 1990

Random Orbital Sanders
	Tool Talk: Random Orbital Sanders - Popular Woodworking September 1991
	Random-Orbit Sanders - Fine Woodworking February 1992
	Random-Orbit Sanders - Wood February 1993

Routers
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Routers - Workbench April 1989
	Routers, Routers Everywhere - Wood February 1990
	Plunge Routers - Wood October 1990
	Buyers Guide to Plunge Routers - American Woodworker July/August 1993

Sabersaws
	What's New with Sabersaws - Fine Woodworking December 1990

Sawmills
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Portable Sawmills - Workbench August 1989

Scrollsaws
	Scrollsaw Blades - Wood April 1990
	Scrollsaws - Wood October 1990
	Scrollsaws over $500 - Wood September 1991

Shapers
	Shapers - Wood December 1990

Shopsmith
	Shopsmith vs. Total Shop - Wood June 1990

Tablesaws
	How to Buy the Most Important Woodworking Machine in your Shop - Wood December 1989
	Tablesaw Safety Devices - Fine Woodworking April 1990
	Tablesaws - Wood October 1990
	Tool Talk - Popular Woodworking July 1991

Thickness Planers
	Portable Power Planes - Fine Homebuilding June 1989
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Planers - Workbench February 1990
	Thickness Planers under $500 - Wood April 1990
	Portable Planer Survey - Fine Woodworking October 1990
	Thickness Planers - Wood October 1990
	Portable Planers - Wood April 1992

Vises
	Woodworking Vises - Wood September 1990

Mail Order
	Mail Order Tools - Fine Homebuilding September 1990


Where to get back issues of magazines mentioned:

Fine Woodworking - Fine Homebuilding
The Taunton Press
63 South Main Street
PO Box 5506
Newtown CT 06470-5506

Wood - Better Homes & Gardens
Meredith Corporation
1716 Locust St.
DesMoines IA 50336
(800) 374-9663 subscription
(800) 572-9350 back issues

Workbench
KC Publishing Inc
4251 Pennsylvania Ave
Kansas City, Missouri 64111
(816) 531-5730

Popular Woodworking
Box 58279
Boulder, CO 80322

-- 
Jim Roche
roche@cs.rochester.edu
University of Rochester Computer Science Department Rochester, NY 14627


Article 21323 of rec.woodworking:
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From: roche@cs.rochester.edu (James Roche)
Newsgroups: rec.woodworking,misc.consumers.house,news.answers,rec.answers,misc.answers
Subject: rec.woodworking Electric Motors Frequently asked Questions
Message-ID: <woodworking/motors_741368630@cs.rochester.edu>
Date: 29 Jun 93 15:46:14 GMT
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Archive-name: woodworking/motors
Last-modified: 3/30/93

This article answers many of the frequently asked questions about electric
motors. 


Motors:

    There are many kinds of motors, but this article considers only two
    kinds used frequently in woodworking tool applications: universal AC/DC
    motors and single-phase induction motors. Universal motors have brushes
    and commutators and are used for portable tools like routers, skilsaws,
    and electric drills.  Single-phase induction motors have no brushes,
    run only on AC electrical power, and are usually found on stationary
    tools such as table saws, drill presses, planers, and jointers.
    There are exceptions to this: some stationary tools use universal
    motors.

    Horsepower:  Motor horsepower is the most misunderstood (and misused)
    electric motor rating.  Neither motor, universal or induction, produces
    usable horsepower unless it is slowed down (by applied mechanical load)
    from no-load speed.  For induction motors, this slowdown is called
    "slip", and the horsepower "developed" by a motor increases with slip
    (to a simple approximation).  This is why induction motors are
    typically rated at 3450 rpm (two pole motor) or 1750 rpm (four pole
    motor).  The rating speed allows for slip from the "synchronous"
    speeds of 3600 and 1800 rpm, respectively.  Universal motors do not
    have a synchronous speed, but have a maximum no-load speed that depends
    upon the voltage applied to the motor.

    Most motors can put out a lot more maximum horsepower than they can
    sustain continuously.  By forcing more mechanical load on the motor,
    slowdown is increased and so therefore is the output horsepower.
    Mechanically, horsepower is torque times rpm, and increasing the
    mechanical load means that the rpm is slowed slightly and the drag
    torque is increased to obtain more torque times rpm.  Electrically,
    horsepower is volts times amps, and by conservation of energy, the
    mechanical output horsepower must be balanced by electrical input
    horsepower.  Since the voltage is relatively constant, this means that
    as a motor is loaded, the input current increases.  But the electrical
    winding impedance has a resistive component, so that higher current
    means more power dissipated in the windings.  In fact, the motor
    windings heat up proportional to the square of the motor current.
    Except for specially designed motors, the current that a motor can
    sustain continuously without burning out its windings is a fraction
    of the current at maximum load.

    Unscrupulous vendors sometimes publish maximum "developed" horsepower
    to make their products seem more capable than they really are.
    Developed horsepower may be two to five times the continuous duty
    rating of a motor.  Such products should be examined to discover the
    continuous duty rating to compare with other, more conservatively
    rated products.

    When the talk is of developed horsepower, the meaning is "peak" which
    for an induction motor is typically the local peak of the torque curve
    near synchronous speed.  A typical induction motor torque curve is:

          |
          |
          .                                            
          |.
          |  .                                        
   Dev.   _    .                                           .
          |      .                                    .      .
          |         .                               .         .
          |              .                        .            .
          |                       .             .
   Rated  _                              .                      .
          |
          |                                                      .
          |                                       
          |                                                       .
          |                                  
  Torque  |                                                        .
          |
          |
          |                                                         .
          |__________________________________________________________._
                                                                     |
          0                   RPM                              1800 or 3600


    As you can see, the curve is very steep in the operating region and in
    fact, the observed operation is typically that once you load the motor
    past the local maximum torque, the speed jumps to the corresponding
    point on the initial portion of the curve or simply stops.  The actual
    operation depends upon the shape of the curve near 0 RPM.

    The Rated HP is typically the torque level at which the motor can be run
    continuously without exceeding the temperature at which the winding
    insulation beaks down.  Since there is thermal mass involved, you can
    operate the motor at higher than rated torque for less than 100% of
    the time and not exceed this temperature if the motor is cool preceding
    the run etc. etc.  etc.

    Typically, two motors with different rated HP develop different HP in a
    ration close to the same as the difference in rating.


    The story is somewhat different for a universal motor such as is used on
    most hand held tools.  In these motors, for a given input voltage, the
    torque goes up as the speed goes down.  The more you load them, the slower
    they run until they stall, at which point their torque is a maximum.
    In this case, the developed horsepower is a the point along the torque
    curve where the speed X torque is a maximum.  As with the induction motor,
    the rated horsepower means you can run the motor there at 100% duty cycle.
    Again, you can load the motor more and it will produce more torque but you
    may only do this on a limited basis.

    The final word is heat.  If you exceed the winding insulation temperature
    rating, you will fail the insulation and ruin the motor ( or pop the
    thermal cutout if so equipped). 



    Application areas:  Universal motors are compact, have high starting
    torque, can run at high rpm, and deal well with rapidly varying
    loads.  They are often used with triac or thyristor speed controls.
    This makes them ideal for portable power tools.  Single-phase
    induction motors are efficient, have a limited rpm selection,
    are relatively heavy and bulky, and are almost maintenance-free.
    They work well in stationary tools that run at one rpm or that have
    a variable-speed transmission.

    Voltage: Both kinds of motors are supplied in popular mains voltages
    (115 or 230) but only induction motors are supplied with winding
    taps that allow either voltage to be selected.  As far as the motor
    is concerned, there is no difference in efficiency when selecting
    either 115 or 230 volts.  This is because such motors have two
    identical sets of windings that are connected in parallel for the lower
    voltage and in series for the higher.  Neither connection results
    in the individual windings seeing a different voltage.  However,
    inadequate wiring can make a difference to motor operation, because
    higher current at 115 volts may give unacceptable wiring voltage drops
    in some shops or garages.  Some wiring voltage drop is expected and
    built into the motor rating.  Nominal pole transformer output (to
    your house) is about 120/240 volts.  Motors are rated for 115/230
    volt operation, which allows for 5/10 volts wiring voltage drop.
    More voltage drop than this can cause low starting torque and
    overheating at rated load.

    115 or 230 volt operation makes no difference to your power company
    either.  The watt-hour meter at your electrical entry measures watts
    regardless of the voltage used.  Your power company does not give
    you a single watt for free, and your PUC (Public Utility Commission)
    won't let the power company charge more than the legal rates.
    Watt-hour meter accuracy is a matter of law in most States.

    Current:  Motors have a nominal current rating which is supposed to be
    the current at rated horsepower and rated voltage.  A motor will not
    draw exactly rated current except in the unlikely circumstance that
    the voltage applied is exactly the rated voltage and the load applied
    is exactly the rated horsepower.  As a matter of fact, most woodworking
    tools spend much of their life spinning without applied load and drawing
    only a small fraction of nameplate rated current.  When the tool begins
    to cut, motor current varies widely depending upon cutting load.  In
    some tools which have relatively small motors, motor current may approach
    several times rated current as the tool is momentarily loaded close
    to stall or breakdown torque.  An exception to this wide variation
    would be something like the motor driving the fan on a dust
    collection system; such motors operate at about rated horsepower all
    the time because the fan presents a constant load.

    For both universal and single-phase induction motors, the full-load
    current is given by

        I  =  (746 * hp) / (eff * pf * voltage)

    where eff is efficiency, pf is power factor, and the others are
    obvious.  In AC systems, the voltage and current waveforms are
    (nominally) sine waves and may differ in phase from each other
    by an angle called the phase angle.  There are 360 phase angle
    degrees in one sinusoidal cycle.  Power factor is the cosine of
    the phase angle, and for motors this angle is normally between
    zero and 90 degrees, current lagging voltage.  In DC systems,
    there is no phase angle, and power factor is defined as 1.0.

    Typical values for single-phase induction motors running at 115
    volts AC are pf = 0.8 and eff = 0.9.  This gives a rule-of-thumb
    value for amps/horsepower at 115 volts of

          9 amps / horsepower

    This figure is probably OK for rule-of-thumb comparison of induction
    and universal motors or reasonability checks as long as you
    remember that it is based on typical values.

    If you are contemplating operating a 115 volt universal motor
    on DC, performance should be slightly better at 115 volts DC
    than it was on AC.  The proper voltage to use is 115 volts DC.
    This is because AC voltages are given as RMS values, which
    are their power-equivalent DC values.  The tool will actually
    endure less voltage stress under DC operation because the
    peak voltage experienced under DC is 0.707 times the AC peak
    voltage.  Switches and contacts, however, may not last as long.

    Starting current can be as much as ten times rated motor current.
    This is usually not a problem for the circuit breaker feeding the
    motor, because modern circuit breakers are typically rated to trip
    instantaneously at about ten times breaker nameplate rating.  For
    currents less than the instantaneous value, the breaker trips due
    to internal heater elements which mimic the heatup characteristics
    of the wiring the breaker is supposed to protect.  Since starting
    currents last only a second or two (unless the motor is jammed),
    motors usually will not trip circuit breakers on starting current if
    the breaker is rated at higher current than the motor nameplate
    current.  This may not be true if you start the motor on a circuit
    which is already loaded close to rating.

    A motor may trip your circuit breaker on time-overcurrent (the
    heaters) even if the motor nameplate current rating appears to be
    within the breaker rating.  This can happen if you continuously
    overload the motor; motor current will then be several times the
    nameplate rating.  There may be other signs of this.  The motor may
    become extremely hot (spit sizzles on the casing).  This is General
    Electric's way of telling you to slow down.

    Breakdown torque:  Single-phase induction motors, unless they are
    designed for torquemotor operation, have a "breakdown" torque rating.
    This refers to the motor torque-versus-rpm curve, which has a peak
    torque somewhere between zero rpm and rated rpm.  If the motor is
    running and load is applied, the motor slows and torque increases
    until breakdown torque is reached.  At this point, further rpm
    reduction causes a reduction of motor-supplied torque, and the motor
    rpm reduces rapidly to zero (it "breaks down").  This is why a saw,
    for instance, appears to suddenly stall as it is overloaded.

    Ventilation: Most motors have one of two kinds of ventilation: fan-
    cooled open housing, or totally enclosed, fan-cooled (TEFC) housing.
    In the former type, a fan attached to the motor shaft draws air
    through the internal parts of the motor and blows it out of
    ventilation slots cut into the motor housing.  Most universal motors
    are of this type because of the need to cool the brushes and to
    exhaust brush carbon dust and commutator copper fragments.  In the
    TEFC type, the motor housing is completely enclosed and no air
    gets to the internal parts of the motor.  Instead, internal heat
    is conducted through the metal housing to fins, where air blown
    by an external fan removes the heat.  Some induction motors have
    this kind of (more expensive) ventilation and they are often used
    in applications where excessive dust or flammable conditions exist.

    Drive gear:  Surprisingly enough, even though many people will look
    at motor horsepower rating, they often completely ignore the drive
    gear attaching the motor to its load.  The drive gear is often a clue
    to the real power rating of the motor-drive combination.  It's
    difficult to determine the rating of enclosed gears, but v-belts
    can give an immediate visual clue.  While larger pulleys increase
    a v-belt rating, a nominal rule of thumb is about one horsepower
    per 1/2 inch v-belt.  Two 5/8 v-belts on large pulleys may be good
    for 4 or 5 horsepower.  One small belt on a motor which "develops"
    3 horsepower is cause for some suspicion.  Actual belt drive ratings
    can be found in manufacturers handbooks (see Gates, for example) or
    in Machinery's Handbook.

    Motor Starters:  Motor starters are big relays mounted in expensive
    metal boxes with heater overloads matched to the motor they start.
    They serve two purposes: 1) The relay contacts are heavy duty and
    are rated for the motor starting current.  Delicate contacts, such
    as those on a pressure switch, will fail if used directly to
    start a large motor.  Delicate contacts are therefore wired to
    operate the motor starter relay rather than the motor.  2)  Wall-
    mounted circuit breakers are designed to protect building wiring,
    not motors plugged into wall receptacles.  If your electrical box
    circuit breaker trips before your motor burns up, it is incidental,
    not on purpose.  However, motor starters are designed to trip on
    heater overload before the motor they start burns up.

    How much horsepower:  This question is often asked and has no easy
    answer.  This is because the amount of horsepower you need depends
    upon your patience, your preferences, and the way you use the
    machine in question.  Here are some pros and cons.  A larger
    horsepower motor (and associated drive gear) has a thicker shaft
    and is typically more robust than a smaller horsepower motor.  It
    responds to overloads and hard cuts more strongly, and may not stall
    in your application.  It does not use very much more power, since
    electric motors use only power demanded plus some motor losses (which
    are somewhat larger for higher rated motors).  On the down side, the
    initial expense of the motor and drive gear is greater.  Higher
    horsepower often requires 230 volt wiring.  The motor and associated
    drive gear and mountings are heavier.  A smaller horsepower motor
    is cheaper, lighter, and may run on 115 volts.  For a careful worker,
    the torque supplied may be sufficient.  On the down side, the tool
    may stall more often and wet wood may be impossible to cut.  The
    drive gear may be less robust and may require more maintenance.  If
    the tool is operated in overload, the 115 volt circuit breaker may
    trip.




-- 
Jim Roche
roche@cs.rochester.edu
University of Rochester Computer Science Department Rochester, NY 14627


Article 21321 of rec.woodworking:
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From: roche@cs.rochester.edu (James Roche)
Newsgroups: rec.woodworking,news.answers,rec.answers
Subject: rec.woodworking Frequently Requested Addresses
Message-ID: <woodworking/addresses/list_741368630@cs.rochester.edu>
Date: 29 Jun 93 15:44:27 GMT
Expires: 12 Aug 1993 15:43:50 GMT
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Archive-name: woodworking/addresses/list
Last-modified: 5/12/93


Some of the more popular addresses/phone numbers used by woodworkers are 
included below. If you want to see some addresses added to this list please
let me know.

This is compiled from messages that have been posted to the group over the
past few years, and from vendors that I have used. This is not an endorsement
of any of the vendors listed.

*******************************************************************

Advanced Machinery Sales (AMS)		(302) 322-2226
POB 312
New Castle, DE 19720
	Selling Hegner, Felder, AMI

AMT (American Machine and Tool Company)		(215) 948-0400
Fourth Avenue and Spring Street
Royersford, PA 19468
	Name is somewht of a misnomer since much if not all the tools
	are imports. Similar to Grizzly catalog with more hand tools.

Arrowsmith & Lang-Borne				(304) 584-4246
Washington & Main St. Box 126			(800) 544-4283
Lumberport WV 26386
	Dust collector parts. Variety of sizes and gauges. Also
	has a booklet on dust collection for woodworkers.

Ballew Saw & Tool			(800) 288-7483
325 S. Kimbrough			(417) 865-7511
Springfield, MO 65806
	Shaper cutters, amana router bits, freud blades.

The Bartley  Collection			(800) 787-2800
29060 Airpark Drive
Easton MD 21601
	Antique Reproduction Furniture Kits, typically 17th. 18th. century
	stuff, the woods of choice are Mahogany and Cherry.  The pieces
	range from small tables, stools, mirrors, etc to large highboys,
 	four poster beds etc.  Prices for kits ranges from about $100 to
	$3,000. No plans are available.

Berea Hardwoods				(216) 243-4452
125 Jacqueline Drive,
Berea OH 44017
	"Specializing in unusual woods, but also a good source for
	more mundane species.  The proprietor is fun to talk to."

Bob Morgan's Woodworking Supplies	(502) 456-2545
1123 Bardstown Road
Louisville, KY 40204
	Hardwoods, veneers, veneering tools and hand tools.

Bratton Machinery & Supply Inc.
1015 Commercial ST.
PO Box 20408
Tallahassee FL 32316
	[no other information]

Bridge City Tool Works			(800) 253-3332
        Squares and straightedges.  Very high prices and quality.

Brookstone				Orders: (603) 924-9541 (24 hours)
127 Vose Farm Road			Customer service: (603)924-9511 9-5 EST
Peterborough, NH 03458
	Unusual tools with a number of gadgets. Nice catalog. Brookstone
	has a numnber of stores around the country. You can sometimes find
	specific items for less elsewhere.

Cascade Tool Co.			(800) 235-0272
Box 848					In WA 236-027M-F 7-7 PT
Mercer Island, WA
	Router and shaper bits. All kinds.

Cherry Tree Toys			(614) 484-4363 (24 hours)
POB 369,
Belmont, OH 43718
	Wood toys. Kits, parts, plans, books.

Chown Hardware & Machinery		(800) 547-1930
333 N.W. 16th Ave			Oregon (800) 452-7634
Portland, OR 97209			Local (503) 243-6500
	This company has been around a long time, since 1879.
	Nice catalog, fair prices, and a flyer that they send out
	every month with the current specials.

Constantines				(800) 223-8087
2050 Eastchester Road			In NY (800)822-1202 -disconnected 10/92
Bronx, NY 10461
	Probably the oldest woodworking company in the country (176 years)
	Wide selection of tools, woods, veneers, and hardware.

Craft Supplies USA			(801) 373-0917
1287 East 1120 South
Provo, Utah  84601
	They specialize in wood turning supplies, Lathes, Bandsaws
	Turning Chisels, Chucks, some wood, and parts for turnings;
	like pepper mills, etc.

Craftman's Corner, Inc.			 515-265-3239
4012 N.E. 14th Street
P.O. Box AP
Des Moines, Iowa  50302
	[no other information]

Craftsman Wood Service Company		(708) 629-3100
1735 W. Cortland CT			(312) 629-3100
Addison, IL 60101
	Small format hand tools and related supplies. Veneer,hard wood,turning
	blocks,excellent selection of hardware, books  and plans and toys.

Craftwoods				(800) 468-7070
2101 Greenspring Dr.
Tionium MD 21093
	Common and wxotic woods, carving tools, bird carving items,
	 books, videos, and classes.

Cryder Creek Wood Shoppe		(800) 642-9663
Box 19					In NY (607) 356-3303 9-4 EST
Whitesville, NY 14897
	Woodturner's supplies

Eagle America				(216) 286-9334
PO Box 1099				(216) 286-7643 (FAX)
Chardon, Ohio 44024			(800) 872-2511 (orders)
	Router Bits

Econ-Abrasives				(800) 367-4101
PO Box 865021				In TX (214) 377-9779
Plano, TX, 75086-5021			M-F 7:30-5:00 CST
	They carry a wide range of sandpaper (belts, sheet, discs,
	rolls, drums).  Good prices, eg: 3x21 belts @ .77,
	4x24 belts @ .94
  	Minimum order around $20, $4.25 shipping, take MC/VISA.
	The people on the phone KNOW sandpaper - they can help with
	most any abrasives question.

Factory Lumber Outlet
200 Shrewsbury St
Boylston MA
	"Large number of hand tools, books and plans.  Separate wood catalog.

The Fine Tool Journal
Iron Horse Antiques
PO Box 4001
Pittsford, VT 05763
	Publication for vintage hand tools.

Foley-Belsaw				Orders: 800 468-4449
6301 Equitable Road			In MO 800 892-8789
Box 419593
Kansas City, MO 64141 
	Large shop equipment: Planers, table saws, combination machines,
	even a sawmill! They send out several free catalogs a year and have
	a number of special offers throughout the year.

Frog Tool Co				(312) 648-1270
700 W. Jackson Blvd.
Chicago, Il 60661
 	Hundreds of woodworking books. All kinds, all woodworking subjects.

Garrett Wade				Orders: (800) 221-2942
161 Avenue of the Americas		Customer service: (212)807-1155 M-F 9-5
New York, NY 10013
	One of the finest catalogs. A woodworker's bible of tools. GW also
	has a separate hardware catalog.
	"The prices are good considering the lavish catalog."

Grizzly Imports
2406 Reach Road			POB 2069
Williamsport, PA 17701		Bellingham, WA 98227
(717) 326-3806			(206) 647-0801
(800) 523-4777			(800) 541-5537
M-F 8:30-5:30			M-F 8:30-5:30
Sat 8:30-1
	Shop Machinery - Imports.
	Does not ship outside US.

Hartville Hardware			(800) 345-2396 M-S 8:30-5
940 W. Maple Street
Hartville, OH 44632
	Brand name tools. Big discount place. No catalog available.

Hida Tool & Hardware Company			(415) 524-3700
1333 San Pablo Avenue		Store hours: T-S 9-5, Sun 11-4 Closed Mon
Berkeley, CA 94702
	Japanese Hand Tools. Excellent quality saws, planes, chisels, knives
	etc. Prices are commensurate with the quality but reasonable. Hida is
	across from REI in Berkeley.

Highland Hardware			(800) 241-6748
1045 N Highland Ave. NE			(404) 872-4466
Dept F  Atlanta GA 30306
	Good source for glues, finishes, etc.  Has Delta tools, good router
	and bisquit joiner selections.  Carries MiniMax and Robland
	stationary tools also.

Hiller Hardware				(803) 779-3131 M-F 9-5, Sat 9-1
1411 Assembly Street
POB 1762
Columbia, SC 29202
	Power Tools mostly. Delta, Porter-Cable, Ryobi, Bosch, Inca, Skil,
	Makita, Milwaukee, Freud, and others.

Industrial Abrasives			(800) 428-2222
642 N 8th Street			In PA (800) 222-2292 
Box 14955
Reading PA 19612
	Sandpaper, sanding drums, assorted abrasives.

International Tool Coorporation		(800) 338-3384
1939 Tyler St.				Florida (800) 221-6767
Hollywood, Florida 33020		Mon-Fri 7:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m EST
					305-927-0291 - Fax
	Bosch, Bostich, Delta, Fein, Freud, Hitachi, HTC, Milwaukee,
	Panasonic, Porter Cable, Rolair, Ryobi, Skil, Stanley.
	All Bosch Router bits are 40% off of list price.

JET Woodworking Machinery and Supplies		(800) 274-6848
POB 1477					(206) 572-5000
Tacoma, WA 98401
	Similar to Grizzly. Warehouses throughout the country.

J. Philip Humfrey			(800) 387-9789
3241 Kennedy Road, Unit 7,		In Canada (416)293-8624
Scarborough, Ontario M1V 2J9
(800) 387-9789 In Canada (416)293-8624
	Woodworking Machinery - Shop equipment, General, Excalibur, 
	Concord, Kraemer.

John Stortz and Son			(215) 627-3855
210 Vine Street
Philadelphia, PA 19106
	This catalog may not quite fit into this catagory but Storz is
	one of the only manufacturers of these kinds of tools. They specialize
	in the production of tools for masonry, roofing, shipbuilding, and
	cooperage. They normally sell to the trades and don't take chargecards.

Jordan International Co			(408) 429-8329
1303 Elmer St.
Belmont, CA 94002
	exotic hardwoods.

Klockit					(800) KLOCKIT 556-2548 M-F 8-8 Sat 8-4
POB 629
Lake Geneva, WI 53147
	Clock Kits. Mason & Sullivan catalog looked better.

Lab Safety Supply			(800) 356-0783 - Voice orders
PO Box 1368				(800) 543-9910 - Fax orders
Janesville, WI 53547-1368		(800) 356-2501 - Techline
					(800) 356-0722 - Customer Service
	Gloves, goggles, respirators. Excellent service. 500 page catalog.


Leichtung Workshops			(800) 321-6840 (24 hours)
4944 Commerce Parkway			In OH (216) 831-2555
Cleveland, OH 44128
	Kind of like Brookstone but gadget/tool ratio is much higher. 

Lee Valley Tools Ltd.			(613) 596-0350
P.O. Box 6295, Station J		(613) 596-6030 - FAX
Ottawa, Ont.				Mon-Thurs 9-6, Fri 9-9, Sat 9-5
K2A 1T4
	"Fine woodworking tools. Several stores.  They have a main catalogue, a
	couple of supplements a year, and a hardware catalogue,  Even if you
	don't understand tools at all, the main catalogue is worthwhile
	getting as a coffee table book: glossy paper and beautiful presentation.
	 It makes a wonderful read. They have everything from instrument-maker's
	to log builder's hand tools, Their bottom-of-the-line quality is quite
	servicable, and their top-of-the-line tools are Art, with accompanying
	prices.  The bottom line is: good selection, high quality, reasonable
	prices, *excellent* service. They design and manufacture many quality
	tools under the VERITAS label.

Lie-Nielsen Toolworks			(800) 327-2520
	Reproductions of discontinued Stanley planes in bronze.  Good quality.

Luthiers Mercantile			(800) 477-4437
PO Box 774				(707) 433-1823
Healdsburg, CA 95448			(707) 433-8802 - FAX
	Wood (esp. thin stock), hand tools, books, finishing and general
	supplies primarily for instrument builders, but also of general
	interest. 230 page catalog $10

Mason & Sullivan			(508) 778-0475 M-F 8-5
586 Higgins Crowell Road 		(508) 778-0477 (after hours)
West Yarmouth,				Customer service:(508) 778-1056
Cape Cod, MA 02673
	Clockbuilding related items. Kits, tools, the works.
	Acquired by Woodcraft - See Woodcraft entry.

McFeeley's Square Drive Screws		(800) 443-7937
712 12th Street				(804) 847-7136 - FAX
P.O. Box 3
Lynchburg VA 24505-0003
	Square drive screws in a huge number of styles and materials;
	screw-related tools; general woodworking stuff like finishes and
	clamps.  The square-drive screws are great and well-priced, the
	other stuff is about 10% higher than the cheapest I've seen.
	 Shipped via UPS the same day for my one order (so far).

Micro-Mark				(800) 225-1066
340 Synder Ave.
Berkeley Heights, NJ 07922
	Minature hand and power tools. 3" diameter table saws, mini
	drill presses, lathes, overhead mills, scroll saws,
	beltsander (1"X6"belt), bench grinder, router, radial arm saw,
	band saw, 4"disc sander, and lots of hand tools and accessories.
	Power miter with a maximum stock size of 3/8" thick by 3/4" deep
	at 90 degrees, 1/2" wide at 45 degrees.


MLCS Ltd.				(800) 533-9298
P.O. Box 4053
Rydal, PA  19046
	Router Bits

Moon's Saw Shop Supplies		(800) 447-7371
2531-39 N. Ashland Ave.
Chicago, IL 60614
	General woodworking supplies and router bits.  

National Particleboard Association
18928 Premiere Court
Gaithersburg ND 20879
	Technical information on particle board.

Northern Hydraulics			(800)553-5545  24 hrs, 7 days
P.O. Box 1499				Minn: (612)894-8310
Burnsville, MN  55337-0499		FAX (612)894-8310
	All kinds of stuff - some woodworking.  Engines, compressors,
	lawn equipment, chain saws, wood spliters, hydraulic fittings,
	air tools, mechanics tools, tool boxes, work benches, playground
	sets, sun glasses, leather jackets, tool kits, winches, trailers,
	jacks, wheels, tires, tractors and even watches.

	Woodworking power tools include Milwaukee, Makita, Bosch, Ryobi,
	Porter Cable, Jepson, B&D, Skil, Wen and Delta.  Mostly portable.
	Sorted by tool type.  Average prices.  136 pages.

Paxton Beautiful Woods			(513) 984-8200
Frank Paxton Lumber Co
7455 Dawson Road
Box 43335
Cincinnati OH 45243
	Wholesale and retail lumber, newsletter and classes.

Philipps Brothers Supply        	(800) 238-4466 (NY)
2525 Kensington Ave.            	(800) 544-4466 (USA)
Amherst, NY  14226-4999
	A large list of power tools for woodworkers and construction
	professionals.  Prices seem pretty good, shipping is usually included.

Pro-Shop				(312) 832-3803
Box 721
Elmhurst, IL 60126
	Woodworking machinery. Imports.

Quaker State Woodworking		(800) 776-5467
	Portable power tools, sanding supplies, clamps, back issues of
	Woodsmith magazine.

RBI					(800) 487-2623
P.O. Box 369
1801 Vine St.
Harrisonville, MO 64701
	RBI Hawk saws

R. Sorsky				(800) 345-4447
3845 N. Blackstone,			In CA (209) 227-2901
Fresno, CA 93726
	Woodworking books. Lots.

Schlosser Tool & Machinery		(800)627-7297
301 Bryant				CO (303)636-1311
Denver, CO  80219			FAX (303)937-9267
	Mostly power tools - industrial, stationary and portable.  Includes 
	Skil, Porter Cable, Delta, Makita, Hitachi, Blum, Bosch, Ryobi, 
	DeWalt, Beisemeyer, Powermatic and others.  Some hand tools like
	Sorby.  Sorted by tool type.  Average to high prices.  75 pages.

Sears
Sears Tower
Chicago. IL 60606
...and just about every other city in the country.
	Power and Hand Tools Specialog.

Seven Corners Ace Hardware		Ordering: 800-328-0457
(Tools on Sale)
216 West 7th St.			In MN: (612) 224-4859
St Paul, MN 55102			Hours: M-F 8-5:30 CST
	Big catalog. Emphasis on portable power tools but they carry a wide
	range of tools and accessories.  Prepaid freight. "..good experiences.

Seyco					(214) 278-3353
P.O. Box 472749
Garland, TX 75047
	Excalibur saws

Shopsmith				(800) 543-7586
	Stores all over the US.

Sporty's Tool Shop		Orders: (800)543-8633 M-F 9:30-8, Sat 11-3
Batavoia, OH 45103		Customer service: (513) 732-2411
	Some tools. Mostly random stuff for house and yard.

Stone Mountain Power Tool Corporation	(800) 262-9599
POB 2825				In GA (404) 446-8390
Norcross, GA
	Woodworking and Construction Tools. Name brands. Reasonable prices.

Tarheel Filing Co			(800) 322-6641
3400 Lake Woodard Drive
Raleigh, NC 27604
	Stationary power tools, hand held power tools, router bits,
	saw blades.

The Fine Tool Shops			(800) 533-5305
170 West Road				In NH 443-0409
POB 7091
Portsmouth, NH 03801
	Good catalog, selection and prices. "...fast, reliable service"
	Possibly out of business, nobody answers the phone.

The Sanding Catalog			(800) 228-0000
P.O. Box 5069
Hickory, NC 28603-5069
	Sandpaper and assorted abrasives.

The Taunton Press			(800) 888-8286
63 South Main St.
P.O. Box 355
Newtown, Conn.  06470-9971
	Publisher of Fine Woodworking, Fine Homebuilding and numerous
	quality books on woodworking and homebuilding

The Wood Store				(717) 297-4188
POB 125
Troy, PA 16947
(717) 297-4188
	Hardwoods, carving blocks, basket strips, dollhouse lumber.

The Woodworker's Store			Orders: (612) 428-2199 M-F 8-8 CST
21801 Industrial Blvd.			Customer service: (612) 428-2899
Rogers, MN 55374
	WWS has 8 stores around the country also. Hardwood, veneers.
	Very good selection of hardware. Hinges, slides, locks, catches,
	pulls and other accessories.

Tool Crib of the North			(800) 358-3096
	Formerly Acme Electric. Good power too selection. All magor brands
	including Delta, Elu, B&D, Skil, Makita, Milwaukee, Powermatic,
	Bosch, Freud, General, Hitachi. Free freight.

Tools Etc.
Dept 458411 510 East Main St
Louisville KY 40202
	[No other information]

Trendlines				Orders: (800) 767-9999
375 Beacham Street			      (800) 343-3248  Answering machine
Chelsea, MA 02150			Customer service: (617) 884-8882
	Woodworking tools and supplies. Good prices.

U.S General				Ordering: 1-800-645-7077
100 Commerical Street			Customer service: (516) 349-7275
Plainview, NY 11803

	**** APPARENTLY NO LONGER IN THE MAIL ORDER BUSINESS. ****
	Typical mail-order discount tool catalog. Name brand tools.
	Big catalog. Seem to be resonable prices. 24 hour phone.

Vandyke's Restorers			Orders: (800) 843-3320
4th Ave. & 6th St.			(605) 796-4425
PO Box 278
Woonsocket, South Dakota 57385
	Supplies for Upholstery, Antique Restoration, Taxidermy(!),
	wrought nails, several head patterns AND brass plated. Lots
	of antique reproduction hardware.

Warren Tool Co.				(914) 876-7817
Rt. 1 Box 14-A
Rhinbeck, NY 12572
	Carving tools (gouges, parting tools, tec) with interchangable
	bits/handles.

Whole Earth Access			(800)829-6300
822 Anthony Street			9AM to 6PM PST, 7 days a week
Berkeley, CA  94710			FAX (415)845-8846
	Hand Tools and Power Tools.  Sorted by type of equipment - not brand.
	Bosch, Porter Cable, Makita, Elu, AEG, Ryobi, Milwaukee, Hitachi,
	Skil, Panasonic, B&D, DeWalt and Delta.  Low to average prices.
	48 pages

Wilke Machinery Company			(717) 846-2800
120 Derry Ct.
York, PA 17402
	Woodworking machinery. Imports. Large selection.

Williams Tool & Hardware Supply (bankrupt) (800)788-0007       8AM-6PM CST M-F
2017 White Settlement Road		TX (817)335-4749    9AM-5PM CST Sa
Fort Worth, TX  76107			FAX (817)877-3150
	Stationary and portable power tools, hand tools and supplies.
	Includes Delta, Ryobi, Porter Cable, Hitachi, Bosch and Elu
	power tools.  Sorted by manufacturer.  Low prices.  32 pages.

Wood - Better Homes & Gardens		(800) 374-9663 subscription
Meredith Corporation			(800) 572-9350 back issues
1716 Locust St.
DesMoines IA 50336
	Publisher of Wood magazine

Woodcarver's Supply			(800) 284-6229 - Orders
P.O. Box 7500				(813) 698-0123 - Questions
Englewood, Florida  34295		(813) 698-0329 - Fax

Woodcraft				(800) 225-1153
41 Atlantic Avenue			From MA, HA, and AL call (617) 935-5860
PO Box 4000			M-F 8:30-6 EST Answering machine at other times
Woburn, MA 01888
Store at 313 Montvale Ave Woburn MA
	Wide range of tools for craftsman. Nice catalog, good prices, excellent
	delivery.

Wood Finishing Enterprises		414-871-0440
2438 North 48th Street
Milwaukee, Wis. 53210
	All types of finishing supplies.

Wood Finishing Supply Co. Inc		315-986-4517
1267 Mary Drive
Macedon, NY 14502
	All types of finishing supplies. The catalog also provides some
	good informationon how to use the finishes.

Woodhaven				(800) 344-6657
	They make router accessories (tables, jigs, fences, adjustment
	handles, inlay bushings, etc).  Prices ok (not great), quality is
	high (table inserts are of 3/8" Lexan, for instance).

Woodsmith				(800) 444-7002
P.O. Box 10740
Des Moines, Iowa  50347-0740
	Publisher of Woodsmith magazine

Woodworkers Hardware			(800) 383-0130
PO Box 784
St. Cloud, MN 56302
	Drawer slides and other cabinet hardware.

Woodworkers Supply of New Mexico	(800) 645-9292 8:30-5 MT M-F
5604 Alameda Place NE			(800) 321-9841
Albuquerque, NM 87113			(505) 821-0500
	Wide range of tools. Delta etc. Power tool emphasis.
	"...fast, reliable service"
	"Small but well rounded selection of hand tools, books etc."

"Woodwork: A Magazine For All Woodworkers"
Circulation Dept.
P.O. Box 1529
Ross, CA 94957
	Another general-interest woodworking magazine, with color and
	slick paper.  Appears to be aimed at people who aspire to being
	good enough to design and construct Fine Woodworking-quality
	projects, but aren't there yet.

Workbench				(816) 531-5730
KC Publishing Inc
4251 Pennsylvania Ave
Kansas City, Missouri 64111
	Publisher of Workbench magazine
-- 
Jim Roche
roche@cs.rochester.edu
University of Rochester Computer Science Department Rochester, NY 14627


Article 21322 of rec.woodworking:
Path: samba.oit.unc.edu!concert!gatech!howland.reston.ans.net!usc!rutgers!rochester!roche
From: roche@cs.rochester.edu (James Roche)
Newsgroups: rec.woodworking,news.answers,rec.answers
Subject: rec.woodworking Frequently Requested Tool Reviews
Message-ID: <woodworking/tool-reviews_741368630@cs.rochester.edu>
Date: 29 Jun 93 15:45:23 GMT
Expires: 12 Aug 1993 15:43:50 GMT
Sender: roche@cs.rochester.edu (James Roche)
Reply-To: roche@cs.rochester.edu
Followup-To: poster
Organization: University of Rochester Computer Science Dept
Lines: 164
Approved: news-answers-request@MIT.Edu
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Frequency: monthly
Xref: samba.oit.unc.edu rec.woodworking:21322 news.answers:9591 rec.answers:1299

Archive-name: woodworking/tool-reviews
Last-modified: 6/29/93

Readers of this group often request reviews of particular tools. This article
is meant to be a pointer to tool reviews/comparisons. It is not a complete
list of sources for tool reviews. If anyone has any additions please send
me a note and I will try to add it in.


Air Compressors
	Portable Air Compressors - Fine Homebuilding October 1988
	Compressed Air Systems - Fine Woodworking June 1990

Air Tools
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Air Tools - Workbench October 1988
	Selecting a Spray Gun - Fine Woodworking June 1990

Bandsaws
	Shopping for Bandsaw Blades - Wood December 1989
	Bandsaws - Wood October 1990
	Bandsaw Roundup - Wood April 1992
	Band Saws - Popular Woodworking September 1992

Belt Sanders
	Portable Belt Sanders - Wood October 1990
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Benchtop Belt/Disc Sanders - Workbench September 1991

Biscuit Joiners
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Plate Joiners - Workbench April 1988
	Plate Joiners - Fine Woodworking June 1989
	Buying a Biscuit Joiner - Wood December 1992

Carvers
	Power Carvers - Fine Woodworking April 1991

Circular Saws
	Portable Circular Saws - Wood October 1990
	Portable Circular Saws (AKA sidewinders) - Fine Homebuilding November 1990

Clamps
	The Smart Shoppers Guide to Clamps - Wood February 1991

Cordless Screwdrivers
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Cordless Screwdrivers - Workbench April 1990
	Cordless drill/drivers - Wood October 1990

Cordless Drills
	Cordless drill/drivers - Wood October 1990
	Cordless Wonders - Wood April 1991

Cut-Off Saws
	Portable Electric Cut-Off Saws - Fine Homebuilding September 1990

Drill Bits
	Buying Forstner Bits - Wood February 1991

Drills
	The Great Electric Drill Shootout - Wood August 1990
	Survey of 3/8" VSR Drills - Fine Homebuilding June 1993

Drill Presses
	Drill Presses - Wood October 1990

Dust Collectors
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Dust Collection Systems - Workbench February 1989

Heat Guns
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Heat Guns - Workbench February 1991

Jointers
	Machines the Give You the Edge Quickly and Accurately - Wood October 1989
	Two New Jointers - Fine Woodworking February 1990
	Jointers - Wood October 1990

Lathes
	Lathes - Wood October 1990
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Lathes - Workbench May 1991

Miter Saws
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Power Miter Saws - Workbench June 1988
	Getting an Angle on Compound Miters - Fine Homebuilding January 1990
	Power Mitersaws - Wood February 1992

Radial Arm Saws
	Radial-arm Saws - Wood October 1990

Random Orbital Sanders
	Tool Talk: Random Orbital Sanders - Popular Woodworking September 1991
	Random-Orbit Sanders - Fine Woodworking February 1992
	Random-Orbit Sanders - Wood February 1993

Routers
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Routers - Workbench April 1989
	Routers, Routers Everywhere - Wood February 1990
	Plunge Routers - Wood October 1990
	Buyers Guide to Plunge Routers - American Woodworker July/August 1993

Sabersaws
	What's New with Sabersaws - Fine Woodworking December 1990

Sawmills
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Portable Sawmills - Workbench August 1989

Scrollsaws
	Scrollsaw Blades - Wood April 1990
	Scrollsaws - Wood October 1990
	Scrollsaws over $500 - Wood September 1991

Shapers
	Shapers - Wood December 1990

Shopsmith
	Shopsmith vs. Total Shop - Wood June 1990

Tablesaws
	How to Buy the Most Important Woodworking Machine in your Shop - Wood December 1989
	Tablesaw Safety Devices - Fine Woodworking April 1990
	Tablesaws - Wood October 1990
	Tool Talk - Popular Woodworking July 1991

Thickness Planers
	Portable Power Planes - Fine Homebuilding June 1989
	The WORKBENCH Guide to Planers - Workbench February 1990
	Thickness Planers under $500 - Wood April 1990
	Portable Planer Survey - Fine Woodworking October 1990
	Thickness Planers - Wood October 1990
	Portable Planers - Wood April 1992

Vises
	Woodworking Vises - Wood September 1990

Mail Order
	Mail Order Tools - Fine Homebuilding September 1990


Where to get back issues of magazines mentioned:

Fine Woodworking - Fine Homebuilding
The Taunton Press
63 South Main Street
PO Box 5506
Newtown CT 06470-5506

Wood - Better Homes & Gardens
Meredith Corporation
1716 Locust St.
DesMoines IA 50336
(800) 374-9663 subscription
(800) 572-9350 back issues

Workbench
KC Publishing Inc
4251 Pennsylvania Ave
Kansas City, Missouri 64111
(816) 531-5730

Popular Woodworking
Box 58279
Boulder, CO 80322

-- 
Jim Roche
roche@cs.rochester.edu
University of Rochester Computer Science Department Rochester, NY 14627


Article 21323 of rec.woodworking:
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From: roche@cs.rochester.edu (James Roche)
Newsgroups: rec.woodworking,misc.consumers.house,news.answers,rec.answers,misc.answers
Subject: rec.woodworking Electric Motors Frequently asked Questions
Message-ID: <woodworking/motors_741368630@cs.rochester.edu>
Date: 29 Jun 93 15:46:14 GMT
Expires: 12 Aug 1993 15:43:50 GMT
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Reply-To: roche@cs.rochester.edu
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Archive-name: woodworking/motors
Last-modified: 3/30/93

This article answers many of the frequently asked questions about electric
motors. 


Motors:

    There are many kinds of motors, but this article considers only two
    kinds used frequently in woodworking tool applications: universal AC/DC
    motors and single-phase induction motors. Universal motors have brushes
    and commutators and are used for portable tools like routers, skilsaws,
    and electric drills.  Single-phase induction motors have no brushes,
    run only on AC electrical power, and are usually found on stationary
    tools such as table saws, drill presses, planers, and jointers.
    There are exceptions to this: some stationary tools use universal
    motors.

    Horsepower:  Motor horsepower is the most misunderstood (and misused)
    electric motor rating.  Neither motor, universal or induction, produces
    usable horsepower unless it is slowed down (by applied mechanical load)
    from no-load speed.  For induction motors, this slowdown is called
    "slip", and the horsepower "developed" by a motor increases with slip
    (to a simple approximation).  This is why induction motors are
    typically rated at 3450 rpm (two pole motor) or 1750 rpm (four pole
    motor).  The rating speed allows for slip from the "synchronous"
    speeds of 3600 and 1800 rpm, respectively.  Universal motors do not
    have a synchronous speed, but have a maximum no-load speed that depends
    upon the voltage applied to the motor.

    Most motors can put out a lot more maximum horsepower than they can
    sustain continuously.  By forcing more mechanical load on the motor,
    slowdown is increased and so therefore is the output horsepower.
    Mechanically, horsepower is torque times rpm, and increasing the
    mechanical load means that the rpm is slowed slightly and the drag
    torque is increased to obtain more torque times rpm.  Electrically,
    horsepower is volts times amps, and by conservation of energy, the
    mechanical output horsepower must be balanced by electrical input
    horsepower.  Since the voltage is relatively constant, this means that
    as a motor is loaded, the input current increases.  But the electrical
    winding impedance has a resistive component, so that higher current
    means more power dissipated in the windings.  In fact, the motor
    windings heat up proportional to the square of the motor current.
    Except for specially designed motors, the current that a motor can
    sustain continuously without burning out its windings is a fraction
    of the current at maximum load.

    Unscrupulous vendors sometimes publish maximum "developed" horsepower
    to make their products seem more capable than they really are.
    Developed horsepower may be two to five times the continuous duty
    rating of a motor.  Such products should be examined to discover the
    continuous duty rating to compare with other, more conservatively
    rated products.

    When the talk is of developed horsepower, the meaning is "peak" which
    for an induction motor is typically the local peak of the torque curve
    near synchronous speed.  A typical induction motor torque curve is:

          |
          |
          .                                            
          |.
          |  .                                        
   Dev.   _    .                                           .
          |      .                                    .      .
          |         .                               .         .
          |              .                        .            .
          |                       .             .
   Rated  _                              .                      .
          |
          |                                                      .
          |                                       
          |                                                       .
          |                                  
  Torque  |                                                        .
          |
          |
          |                                                         .
          |__________________________________________________________._
                                                                     |
          0                   RPM                              1800 or 3600


    As you can see, the curve is very steep in the operating region and in
    fact, the observed operation is typically that once you load the motor
    past the local maximum torque, the speed jumps to the corresponding
    point on the initial portion of the curve or simply stops.  The actual
    operation depends upon the shape of the curve near 0 RPM.

    The Rated HP is typically the torque level at which the motor can be run
    continuously without exceeding the temperature at which the winding
    insulation beaks down.  Since there is thermal mass involved, you can
    operate the motor at higher than rated torque for less than 100% of
    the time and not exceed this temperature if the motor is cool preceding
    the run etc. etc.  etc.

    Typically, two motors with different rated HP develop different HP in a
    ration close to the same as the difference in rating.


    The story is somewhat different for a universal motor such as is used on
    most hand held tools.  In these motors, for a given input voltage, the
    torque goes up as the speed goes down.  The more you load them, the slower
    they run until they stall, at which point their torque is a maximum.
    In this case, the developed horsepower is a the point along the torque
    curve where the speed X torque is a maximum.  As with the induction motor,
    the rated horsepower means you can run the motor there at 100% duty cycle.
    Again, you can load the motor more and it will produce more torque but you
    may only do this on a limited basis.

    The final word is heat.  If you exceed the winding insulation temperature
    rating, you will fail the insulation and ruin the motor ( or pop the
    thermal cutout if so equipped). 



    Application areas:  Universal motors are compact, have high starting
    torque, can run at high rpm, and deal well with rapidly varying
    loads.  They are often used with triac or thyristor speed controls.
    This makes them ideal for portable power tools.  Single-phase
    induction motors are efficient, have a limited rpm selection,
    are relatively heavy and bulky, and are almost maintenance-free.
    They work well in stationary tools that run at one rpm or that have
    a variable-speed transmission.

    Voltage: Both kinds of motors are supplied in popular mains voltages
    (115 or 230) but only induction motors are supplied with winding
    taps that allow either voltage to be selected.  As far as the motor
    is concerned, there is no difference in efficiency when selecting
    either 115 or 230 volts.  This is because such motors have two
    identical sets of windings that are connected in parallel for the lower
    voltage and in series for the higher.  Neither connection results
    in the individual windings seeing a different voltage.  However,
    inadequate wiring can make a difference to motor operation, because
    higher current at 115 volts may give unacceptable wiring voltage drops
    in some shops or garages.  Some wiring voltage drop is expected and
    built into the motor rating.  Nominal pole transformer output (to
    your house) is about 120/240 volts.  Motors are rated for 115/230
    volt operation, which allows for 5/10 volts wiring voltage drop.
    More voltage drop than this can cause low starting torque and
    overheating at rated load.

    115 or 230 volt operation makes no difference to your power company
    either.  The watt-hour meter at your electrical entry measures watts
    regardless of the voltage used.  Your power company does not give
    you a single watt for free, and your PUC (Public Utility Commission)
    won't let the power company charge more than the legal rates.
    Watt-hour meter accuracy is a matter of law in most States.

    Current:  Motors have a nominal current rating which is supposed to be
    the current at rated horsepower and rated voltage.  A motor will not
    draw exactly rated current except in the unlikely circumstance that
    the voltage applied is exactly the rated voltage and the load applied
    is exactly the rated horsepower.  As a matter of fact, most woodworking
    tools spend much of their life spinning without applied load and drawing
    only a small fraction of nameplate rated current.  When the tool begins
    to cut, motor current varies widely depending upon cutting load.  In
    some tools which have relatively small motors, motor current may approach
    several times rated current as the tool is momentarily loaded close
    to stall or breakdown torque.  An exception to this wide variation
    would be something like the motor driving the fan on a dust
    collection system; such motors operate at about rated horsepower all
    the time because the fan presents a constant load.

    For both universal and single-phase induction motors, the full-load
    current is given by

        I  =  (746 * hp) / (eff * pf * voltage)

    where eff is efficiency, pf is power factor, and the others are
    obvious.  In AC systems, the voltage and current waveforms are
    (nominally) sine waves and may differ in phase from each other
    by an angle called the phase angle.  There are 360 phase angle
    degrees in one sinusoidal cycle.  Power factor is the cosine of
    the phase angle, and for motors this angle is normally between
    zero and 90 degrees, current lagging voltage.  In DC systems,
    there is no phase angle, and power factor is defined as 1.0.

    Typical values for single-phase induction motors running at 115
    volts AC are pf = 0.8 and eff = 0.9.  This gives a rule-of-thumb
    value for amps/horsepower at 115 volts of

          9 amps / horsepower

    This figure is probably OK for rule-of-thumb comparison of induction
    and universal motors or reasonability checks as long as you
    remember that it is based on typical values.

    If you are contemplating operating a 115 volt universal motor
    on DC, performance should be slightly better at 115 volts DC
    than it was on AC.  The proper voltage to use is 115 volts DC.
    This is because AC voltages are given as RMS values, which
    are their power-equivalent DC values.  The tool will actually
    endure less voltage stress under DC operation because the
    peak voltage experienced under DC is 0.707 times the AC peak
    voltage.  Switches and contacts, however, may not last as long.

    Starting current can be as much as ten times rated motor current.
    This is usually not a problem for the circuit breaker feeding the
    motor, because modern circuit breakers are typically rated to trip
    instantaneously at about ten times breaker nameplate rating.  For
    currents less than the instantaneous value, the breaker trips due
    to internal heater elements which mimic the heatup characteristics
    of the wiring the breaker is supposed to protect.  Since starting
    currents last only a second or two (unless the motor is jammed),
    motors usually will not trip circuit breakers on starting current if
    the breaker is rated at higher current than the motor nameplate
    current.  This may not be true if you start the motor on a circuit
    which is already loaded close to rating.

    A motor may trip your circuit breaker on time-overcurrent (the
    heaters) even if the motor nameplate current rating appears to be
    within the breaker rating.  This can happen if you continuously
    overload the motor; motor current will then be several times the
    nameplate rating.  There may be other signs of this.  The motor may
    become extremely hot (spit sizzles on the casing).  This is General
    Electric's way of telling you to slow down.

    Breakdown torque:  Single-phase induction motors, unless they are
    designed for torquemotor operation, have a "breakdown" torque rating.
    This refers to the motor torque-versus-rpm curve, which has a peak
    torque somewhere between zero rpm and rated rpm.  If the motor is
    running and load is applied, the motor slows and torque increases
    until breakdown torque is reached.  At this point, further rpm
    reduction causes a reduction of motor-supplied torque, and the motor
    rpm reduces rapidly to zero (it "breaks down").  This is why a saw,
    for instance, appears to suddenly stall as it is overloaded.

    Ventilation: Most motors have one of two kinds of ventilation: fan-
    cooled open housing, or totally enclosed, fan-cooled (TEFC) housing.
    In the former type, a fan attached to the motor shaft draws air
    through the internal parts of the motor and blows it out of
    ventilation slots cut into the motor housing.  Most universal motors
    are of this type because of the need to cool the brushes and to
    exhaust brush carbon dust and commutator copper fragments.  In the
    TEFC type, the motor housing is completely enclosed and no air
    gets to the internal parts of the motor.  Instead, internal heat
    is conducted through the metal housing to fins, where air blown
    by an external fan removes the heat.  Some induction motors have
    this kind of (more expensive) ventilation and they are often used
    in applications where excessive dust or flammable conditions exist.

    Drive gear:  Surprisingly enough, even though many people will look
    at motor horsepower rating, they often completely ignore the drive
    gear attaching the motor to its load.  The drive gear is often a clue
    to the real power rating of the motor-drive combination.  It's
    difficult to determine the rating of enclosed gears, but v-belts
    can give an immediate visual clue.  While larger pulleys increase
    a v-belt rating, a nominal rule of thumb is about one horsepower
    per 1/2 inch v-belt.  Two 5/8 v-belts on large pulleys may be good
    for 4 or 5 horsepower.  One small belt on a motor which "develops"
    3 horsepower is cause for some suspicion.  Actual belt drive ratings
    can be found in manufacturers handbooks (see Gates, for example) or
    in Machinery's Handbook.

    Motor Starters:  Motor starters are big relays mounted in expensive
    metal boxes with heater overloads matched to the motor they start.
    They serve two purposes: 1) The relay contacts are heavy duty and
    are rated for the motor starting current.  Delicate contacts, such
    as those on a pressure switch, will fail if used directly to
    start a large motor.  Delicate contacts are therefore wired to
    operate the motor starter relay rather than the motor.  2)  Wall-
    mounted circuit breakers are designed to protect building wiring,
    not motors plugged into wall receptacles.  If your electrical box
    circuit breaker trips before your motor burns up, it is incidental,
    not on purpose.  However, motor starters are designed to trip on
    heater overload before the motor they start burns up.

    How much horsepower:  This question is often asked and has no easy
    answer.  This is because the amount of horsepower you need depends
    upon your patience, your preferences, and the way you use the
    machine in question.  Here are some pros and cons.  A larger
    horsepower motor (and associated drive gear) has a thicker shaft
    and is typically more robust than a smaller horsepower motor.  It
    responds to overloads and hard cuts more strongly, and may not stall
    in your application.  It does not use very much more power, since
    electric motors use only power demanded plus some motor losses (which
    are somewhat larger for higher rated motors).  On the down side, the
    initial expense of the motor and drive gear is greater.  Higher
    horsepower often requires 230 volt wiring.  The motor and associated
    drive gear and mountings are heavier.  A smaller horsepower motor
    is cheaper, lighter, and may run on 115 volts.  For a careful worker,
    the torque supplied may be sufficient.  On the down side, the tool
    may stall more often and wet wood may be impossible to cut.  The
    drive gear may be less robust and may require more maintenance.  If
    the tool is operated in overload, the 115 volt circuit breaker may
    trip.




-- 
Jim Roche
roche@cs.rochester.edu
University of Rochester Computer Science Department Rochester, NY 14627


Article 22014 of rec.woodworking:
Path: samba.oit.unc.edu!concert!gatech!howland.reston.ans.net!math.ohio-state.edu!uunet.ca!ecicrl!clewis
From: clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca (Chris Lewis)
Newsgroups: misc.consumers.house,rec.woodworking,misc.kids
Subject: FAQ: Crib and Cradle Safety Regulations
Summary: A summary of crib and cradle safety regulations.
Message-ID: <cribfaq_743142086@ecicrl>
Date: 20 Jul 93 04:21:42 GMT
Expires: 17 Aug 93 04:21:26 GMT
Reply-To: cribfaq@ferret.ocunix.on.ca (Crib FAQ commentary reception)
Followup-To: poster
Organization: Elegant Communications Inc., Ottawa, Canada
Lines: 200
Supersedes: <cribfaq_741932475@ecicrl>
Xref: samba.oit.unc.edu misc.consumers.house:36603 rec.woodworking:22014 misc.kids:65660

Archive-name: crib-safety
Last-modified: Tue Apr 20 12:36:51 EST 1993

Editor/Author: Chris Lewis, clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca
Comments-to: cribfaq@ferret.ocunix.on.ca
	(automatic if you reply to this posting)

Changes since last issue: rationale for 2 3/8" slat spacing.
Warning about rocking cribs, children sleeping in parent's beds.

New or changed material is marked with a "|".  You can skip to the
new sections by typing "g^|" in most newsreaders.

I will extend this from time-to-time as comments come in, or it
seems appropriate to add new stuff.  This is not formated as Q&A,
just as a series of points.

This is a summary of the "Crib and Cradle Safety" pamphlet published
by the Ministry of Consumer and Corporate Affairs, Canada.
The date on the pamphlet seems to be 1987.  I don't imagine that
it's changed much since then.  The pamphlet ID is:

	C&CC No 190 17342 B 87-07

From what I've heard of US regulation, they're fairly close.

These are probably a good start when you're determining the safety
of an existing crib or are thinking of building your own.  When in
doubt, though, it is suggested that you obtain the latest applicable
regulations.  I've done my best to transcribe them accurately, but
I do not warrantee the accuracy or current applicability of these
rules.

The measurements in this pamphlet are metric.   I'll take a stab at
the conversions, but if there's a conflict, take the metric.
(for reference, you divide centimetres (cm) by 2.54 to get inches.
There are 10 millimetres (mm) in a centimetre).  Even if these
are a direct copy of the USA's (or vice-versa) people should be
aware that the actual US regulations will probably not be
exact conversions (eg: it's been rounded off one way or the other)

slat spacing: maximum: 6cm (2 3/8")  [This may seem unreasonably
narrow - no child that's likely to be at home is going to have a head
*that* small.  True.  But a child's body can often slip through
a gap only a little larger, resulting in strangulation when the
child's head gets caught.]

corner post protrusion (above rails/frame): 3mm max (1/8")

When the mattress support is at the lowest position and the drop side
is at the highest, the top of the rail must be at least 66cm (26")
above the top of the mattress support.

When the mattress support is at its highest, and drop side at lowest,
the top of the rail must be at least 23cm (9") above the top of the
mattress support.

Other rules:
	- drop side requires two separate positive and simultaneous
	  actions to release the side, and engages automatically.
	- there must be no gap between the lower edge of the end panel
	  and the upper edge of mattress support.
	- all small parts are firmly attached and able to withstand
	  a 90 newton (20 pounds) of force, pull or push
	- there are no split, cracked or broken, loose or missing slats,
	  or broken or missing hardware or screws
	- threaded bolt ends are either inaccessible or covered by
	  an acorn nut
	- mattress support mechanisms are firmly attached so that they
	  cannot be released with an upward push from under the mattress
	  support.
	- there is no mmore than a 3cm (1 3/16") gap between the mattress
	  and the sides or ends of the crib when the mattress is pushed
	  into a corner.
	- the labeling on cribs, cradles and their containers clearly
	  identifies the manufacturer, model number and date of manufacture.
	- all open holes are too small for a child's finger to become caught.
	- crib mattresses should be no thicker than 15cm (5 7/8").
	  They should be kept in good condition.  if they're too soft
	  or worn down in any area, a gap or hollow may be created where
	  a baby could become trapped and suffocate.

    Literature which must accompany the crib or cradle should:
	- state and show clearly how to assemble the product
	- contain a warning on proper use of the product, including a
	  statement not to use it if the child is able to climb out
	  unaided or, in the case of cribs, is taller than 90cm.
	
    Mattress support mechanisms:
	The mattress support mechanisms or hangers on some cribs may
	not be secure.  Check them by rattling the mattress support,
	thumping the mattress from the top and repeating the thumping
	on the support from the bottom.  If the support dislodges, your
	child's life could be in danger.  To prevent this, prop up the
	mattress support firmly from underneath, perhaps by using large
	boxes.

	[Ed note: when in doubt, bolt it together.  This one item is
	probably responsible for more deaths than all of the other problems
	put together]

Precautions:
	- Some people like to protect the mattress with waterproof sheets -
	  but these could hamper a child's breathing and should not be
	  used.

	  [Ed note: many new mattresses come with integral waterproof
	  coverings.  You should use a quilted mattress protector *and*
	  a fitted mattress sheet (cotton or flannelette) over top.]

	- bumper pads are used to protect a baby's head if he or she happens
	  pump it against the side of the crib.  Bumper pads come protected
	  with a plastic cover, which should be checked as often as possible.
	  If it's punctured or torn, it could be chewed or torn even
	  further, and a baby might swallow or inhale pieces of it and
	  choke.  A torn plastic cover also leads to holes in the bumper
	  pad, and babies have been known to stick their heads in these
	  holes and suffocate.

Pointers:
	- Always make sure that your crib is assembled strictly in
	  accordance with the manufacturer's instructions, and that
	  each component is properly and securely in place at all
	  times.
	- If you own a portable mesh crib, make certain that the drop side
	  is fixed very securely in the raised position.  Otherwise, the
	  baby might roll into the mesh pocket formed when the drop side
	  is not fully raised.  The baby's head or chest could easily
	  become compressed between the floor of the crib and the mesh
	  side and the baby could suffocate.
	- Never leave a baby in a crib with something like a necklace,
	  elastic, scarf or with a pacifier on a long cord...
	- People like to hang mobiles over cribs.  These should be too
	  far to be reached by a baby standing in the crib.
	- Babies should never be tied or harnessed in a crib.
	- As soon as your baby is able to sit up, remove crib exercisors
	  or other toys that are strung over the crib.
	- As soon as your baby is able to stand, ensure that the mattress
	  is at its lowest position, and remove the bumper pads from the
	  crib, as well as any large toys that could serve as steps for
	  climbing out.
	- Avoid using a crib with toeholds - ie: slat/spindle cribs with
	  cross-bars in the head or foot board.  There should be no foot
	  hold that is less than the above side minimum height specifications
	  from the top.
	- When your baby is old enough to climb out of the crib, it's time
	  to stop using it.

New rules/recommendations:
	- rocking cradles (rocker or swing type) should be designed so that
	  they will rock less than 10 degrees when a child is all the way
	  to one side, or be supplied with spring-loaded bolt locks.
	  "Loose pin" locks are inadequate, because they may fall out or
	  be forgotten or lost.  If the cradle rocks more than 10 degrees
	  under the weight of a child, very young children can roll into a
	  corner, become entangled in the bedclothes, be unable to move
	  and suffocate.
	- Some health officials consider having your child sleep in your
	  bed with you to be extremely hazardous, because, asleep, you could
	  roll over and crush or suffocate your child.

[Canada only] If you have further questions, please contact your local
office of Consumer and Corporate Affairs Canada.

Building your own crib/cradle (not from the pamphlet)

Finishing:

Ideally, you want to use a totally non-toxic finish, because some children
tend to act like beavers....  The best solution is to use some sort of
edible oil.  Unfortunately, most of the vegetable oils (corn oil, sunflower
oil et. al.) take a long time to dry, if at all, and under some circumstances
will go rancid and smell and may cause a child some distress.  Three oil
finishes that are known to be suitable are:

	- pure tung oil (make sure it says it's *pure*.  Most "tung oil"
	  finishes are combined with metallic driers and solvents to improve
	  hardness or speed up the drying)
	- walnut oil.
	- Behlen's salad bowl finish.

It's recommended that you let these finishes dry for two weeks or longer.

Some of the standard finishes will dry to a non-toxic state, but this
will depend on the brand, and a long drying time.  This FAQ will make
no recommendations as to whether any are suitable.

| Mineral oil can be used because it is non-toxic, but it never really
| dries completely.

Materials:  Many woods can cause skin irritation or other problems.
If you stick to a domestic hardwood (maple, cherry, walnut, poplar,
pine, oak, beech etc.) and use a reasonable finish, the cradle will be
safe.  Woods to avoid without extra precautions are: most exotic
hardwoods (especially rosewood, teak), cedar, juniper (aromatic cedar)
and some of the less common domestics, such as Oleander and Mimosa.
-- 
Chris Lewis; clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca; Phone: Canada 613 832-0541
Psroff 3.0 info: psroff-request@ferret.ocunix.on.ca
Ferret list: ferret-request@ferret.ocunix.on.ca


Article 22014 of rec.woodworking:
Path: samba.oit.unc.edu!concert!gatech!howland.reston.ans.net!math.ohio-state.edu!uunet.ca!ecicrl!clewis
From: clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca (Chris Lewis)
Newsgroups: misc.consumers.house,rec.woodworking,misc.kids
Subject: FAQ: Crib and Cradle Safety Regulations
Summary: A summary of crib and cradle safety regulations.
Message-ID: <cribfaq_743142086@ecicrl>
Date: 20 Jul 93 04:21:42 GMT
Expires: 17 Aug 93 04:21:26 GMT
Reply-To: cribfaq@ferret.ocunix.on.ca (Crib FAQ commentary reception)
Followup-To: poster
Organization: Elegant Communications Inc., Ottawa, Canada
Lines: 200
Supersedes: <cribfaq_741932475@ecicrl>
Xref: samba.oit.unc.edu misc.consumers.house:36603 rec.woodworking:22014 misc.kids:65660

Archive-name: crib-safety
Last-modified: Tue Apr 20 12:36:51 EST 1993

Editor/Author: Chris Lewis, clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca
Comments-to: cribfaq@ferret.ocunix.on.ca
	(automatic if you reply to this posting)

Changes since last issue: rationale for 2 3/8" slat spacing.
Warning about rocking cribs, children sleeping in parent's beds.

New or changed material is marked with a "|".  You can skip to the
new sections by typing "g^|" in most newsreaders.

I will extend this from time-to-time as comments come in, or it
seems appropriate to add new stuff.  This is not formated as Q&A,
just as a series of points.

This is a summary of the "Crib and Cradle Safety" pamphlet published
by the Ministry of Consumer and Corporate Affairs, Canada.
The date on the pamphlet seems to be 1987.  I don't imagine that
it's changed much since then.  The pamphlet ID is:

	C&CC No 190 17342 B 87-07

From what I've heard of US regulation, they're fairly close.

These are probably a good start when you're determining the safety
of an existing crib or are thinking of building your own.  When in
doubt, though, it is suggested that you obtain the latest applicable
regulations.  I've done my best to transcribe them accurately, but
I do not warrantee the accuracy or current applicability of these
rules.

The measurements in this pamphlet are metric.   I'll take a stab at
the conversions, but if there's a conflict, take the metric.
(for reference, you divide centimetres (cm) by 2.54 to get inches.
There are 10 millimetres (mm) in a centimetre).  Even if these
are a direct copy of the USA's (or vice-versa) people should be
aware that the actual US regulations will probably not be
exact conversions (eg: it's been rounded off one way or the other)

slat spacing: maximum: 6cm (2 3/8")  [This may seem unreasonably
narrow - no child that's likely to be at home is going to have a head
*that* small.  True.  But a child's body can often slip through
a gap only a little larger, resulting in strangulation when the
child's head gets caught.]

corner post protrusion (above rails/frame): 3mm max (1/8")

When the mattress support is at the lowest position and the drop side
is at the highest, the top of the rail must be at least 66cm (26")
above the top of the mattress support.

When the mattress support is at its highest, and drop side at lowest,
the top of the rail must be at least 23cm (9") above the top of the
mattress support.

Other rules:
	- drop side requires two separate positive and simultaneous
	  actions to release the side, and engages automatically.
	- there must be no gap between the lower edge of the end panel
	  and the upper edge of mattress support.
	- all small parts are firmly attached and able to withstand
	  a 90 newton (20 pounds) of force, pull or push
	- there are no split, cracked or broken, loose or missing slats,
	  or broken or missing hardware or screws
	- threaded bolt ends are either inaccessible or covered by
	  an acorn nut
	- mattress support mechanisms are firmly attached so that they
	  cannot be released with an upward push from under the mattress
	  support.
	- there is no mmore than a 3cm (1 3/16") gap between the mattress
	  and the sides or ends of the crib when the mattress is pushed
	  into a corner.
	- the labeling on cribs, cradles and their containers clearly
	  identifies the manufacturer, model number and date of manufacture.
	- all open holes are too small for a child's finger to become caught.
	- crib mattresses should be no thicker than 15cm (5 7/8").
	  They should be kept in good condition.  if they're too soft
	  or worn down in any area, a gap or hollow may be created where
	  a baby could become trapped and suffocate.

    Literature which must accompany the crib or cradle should:
	- state and show clearly how to assemble the product
	- contain a warning on proper use of the product, including a
	  statement not to use it if the child is able to climb out
	  unaided or, in the case of cribs, is taller than 90cm.
	
    Mattress support mechanisms:
	The mattress support mechanisms or hangers on some cribs may
	not be secure.  Check them by rattling the mattress support,
	thumping the mattress from the top and repeating the thumping
	on the support from the bottom.  If the support dislodges, your
	child's life could be in danger.  To prevent this, prop up the
	mattress support firmly from underneath, perhaps by using large
	boxes.

	[Ed note: when in doubt, bolt it together.  This one item is
	probably responsible for more deaths than all of the other problems
	put together]

Precautions:
	- Some people like to protect the mattress with waterproof sheets -
	  but these could hamper a child's breathing and should not be
	  used.

	  [Ed note: many new mattresses come with integral waterproof
	  coverings.  You should use a quilted mattress protector *and*
	  a fitted mattress sheet (cotton or flannelette) over top.]

	- bumper pads are used to protect a baby's head if he or she happens
	  pump it against the side of the crib.  Bumper pads come protected
	  with a plastic cover, which should be checked as often as possible.
	  If it's punctured or torn, it could be chewed or torn even
	  further, and a baby might swallow or inhale pieces of it and
	  choke.  A torn plastic cover also leads to holes in the bumper
	  pad, and babies have been known to stick their heads in these
	  holes and suffocate.

Pointers:
	- Always make sure that your crib is assembled strictly in
	  accordance with the manufacturer's instructions, and that
	  each component is properly and securely in place at all
	  times.
	- If you own a portable mesh crib, make certain that the drop side
	  is fixed very securely in the raised position.  Otherwise, the
	  baby might roll into the mesh pocket formed when the drop side
	  is not fully raised.  The baby's head or chest could easily
	  become compressed between the floor of the crib and the mesh
	  side and the baby could suffocate.
	- Never leave a baby in a crib with something like a necklace,
	  elastic, scarf or with a pacifier on a long cord...
	- People like to hang mobiles over cribs.  These should be too
	  far to be reached by a baby standing in the crib.
	- Babies should never be tied or harnessed in a crib.
	- As soon as your baby is able to sit up, remove crib exercisors
	  or other toys that are strung over the crib.
	- As soon as your baby is able to stand, ensure that the mattress
	  is at its lowest position, and remove the bumper pads from the
	  crib, as well as any large toys that could serve as steps for
	  climbing out.
	- Avoid using a crib with toeholds - ie: slat/spindle cribs with
	  cross-bars in the head or foot board.  There should be no foot
	  hold that is less than the above side minimum height specifications
	  from the top.
	- When your baby is old enough to climb out of the crib, it's time
	  to stop using it.

New rules/recommendations:
	- rocking cradles (rocker or swing type) should be designed so that
	  they will rock less than 10 degrees when a child is all the way
	  to one side, or be supplied with spring-loaded bolt locks.
	  "Loose pin" locks are inadequate, because they may fall out or
	  be forgotten or lost.  If the cradle rocks more than 10 degrees
	  under the weight of a child, very young children can roll into a
	  corner, become entangled in the bedclothes, be unable to move
	  and suffocate.
	- Some health officials consider having your child sleep in your
	  bed with you to be extremely hazardous, because, asleep, you could
	  roll over and crush or suffocate your child.

[Canada only] If you have further questions, please contact your local
office of Consumer and Corporate Affairs Canada.

Building your own crib/cradle (not from the pamphlet)

Finishing:

Ideally, you want to use a totally non-toxic finish, because some children
tend to act like beavers....  The best solution is to use some sort of
edible oil.  Unfortunately, most of the vegetable oils (corn oil, sunflower
oil et. al.) take a long time to dry, if at all, and under some circumstances
will go rancid and smell and may cause a child some distress.  Three oil
finishes that are known to be suitable are:

	- pure tung oil (make sure it says it's *pure*.  Most "tung oil"
	  finishes are combined with metallic driers and solvents to improve
	  hardness or speed up the drying)
	- walnut oil.
	- Behlen's salad bowl finish.

It's recommended that you let these finishes dry for two weeks or longer.

Some of the standard finishes will dry to a non-toxic state, but this
will depend on the brand, and a long drying time.  This FAQ will make
no recommendations as to whether any are suitable.

| Mineral oil can be used because it is non-toxic, but it never really
| dries completely.

Materials:  Many woods can cause skin irritation or other problems.
If you stick to a domestic hardwood (maple, cherry, walnut, poplar,
pine, oak, beech etc.) and use a reasonable finish, the cradle will be
safe.  Woods to avoid without extra precautions are: most exotic
hardwoods (especially rosewood, teak), cedar, juniper (aromatic cedar)
and some of the less common domestics, such as Oleander and Mimosa.
-- 
Chris Lewis; clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca; Phone: Canada 613 832-0541
Psroff 3.0 info: psroff-request@ferret.ocunix.on.ca
Ferret list: ferret-request@ferret.ocunix.on.ca


Article 22172 of rec.woodworking:
Path: samba.oit.unc.edu!concert!gatech!howland.reston.ans.net!math.ohio-state.edu!uunet.ca!ecicrl!clewis
From: clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca (Chris Lewis)
Newsgroups: misc.consumers.house,rec.woodworking,news.answers,misc.answers,rec.answers
Subject: Electrical Wiring FAQ
Summary: A series of questions and answers about house wiring
Message-ID: <wirefaq_743401322@ecicrl>
Date: 23 Jul 93 04:22:28 GMT
Expires: 13 Aug 93 04:22:02 GMT
Reply-To: wirefaq@ferret.ocunix.on.ca (Wiring FAQ commentary reception)
Followup-To: poster
Organization: Elegant Communications Inc., Ottawa, Canada
Lines: 1650
Approved: news-answers-request@mit.edu
Supersedes: <wirefaq_742796490@ecicrl>
Xref: samba.oit.unc.edu misc.consumers.house:36836 rec.woodworking:22172 news.answers:10340 misc.answers:153 rec.answers:1547

Archive-name: electrical-wiring
Last-modified: Sat Jun 26 00:11:06 EDT 1993

	    Frequently Asked Questions on Electrical Wiring

		Steven Bellovin (smb@research.att.com)
		Chris Lewis (clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca)

	    Comments to (automatic if you reply to this article):
		    wirefaq@ferret.ocunix.on.ca

+--------------------------------------------------------------
| Changes this issue: updated to 1993 NEC.  Many changes.  Quick
| scan of all the change bars is recommended.  Added resistance
| table too.  I didn't bother change barring the table of contents.
+--------------------------------------------------------------

This FAQ is formatted as a digest.  Most news readers can
skip from one question to the next by pressing ^G.

Answers to many other topics related to houses can be obtained from
the misc.consumers.house archive; send an empty piece of mail to
house-archive@dg-rtp.dg.com for information.

Changes to previous issue marked with "|" in left column.  Watch
particularly for "NEW" in the Questions list for new or substantively
changed answers.  "g^|" will get you to the changed sections quickly
in most newsreaders.

Note that this is now a registered FAQ - cross-posted to news.answers
and appears in the FAQ list of lists, and is ftpable from rtfm.mit.edu.

Subject: Questions answered in this FAQ

	Introduction/Disclaimers
	What is the NEC?  Where can I get a copy?
	What is the CEC?  Where can I get a copy?
	Can I do my own wiring?  Extra pointers?
	What do I need in the way of tools?
	What is UL listing?
	What is CSA approval?
	Are there any cheaper, easier to read books on wiring?
	Inspections how and what?  Why should I get my wiring inspected?
	My house doesn't meet some of these rules and regulations.
	A word on voltages: 110/115/117/120/125/220/240
	What does an electrical service look like?
	What is a circuit?
	"grounding" versus "grounded" versus "neutral".
	What does a fuse or breaker do?  What are the differences?
	Breakers?  Can't I use fuses?
	What size wire should I use?
	Where do these numbers come from?
	What does "14-2" mean?
	What is a "wirenut"/"marrette"/"marr connector".  How are they used?
	What is a GFI/GFCI?
	Where should GFCIs be used?
	Where shouldn't I use a GFCI?
	What is the difference between a GFCI outlet and a GFCI breaker?
	What's the purpose of the ground prong on an outlet, then?
	Why is one prong wider than the other?  Polarization
	What kind of outlets do I need in a kitchen?
	Where must outlets and switches be in bathrooms?
	What is Romex/NM/NMD?  What is BX?  When should I use each?
	Should I use plastic or metal boxes?
	Junction box positioning?
	Can I install a replacement fixture?
	What does it mean when the lights brighten when a motor starts?
	What is 3 phase power?  Should I use it?  Can I get it in my house?
	Is it better to run motors at 110 or 220?
	What is this nonsense about 3HP on 110V 15A circuits?
	How do I convert two prong receptacles to three prong?
	Are you sure about GFCIs and ungrounded outlets?
	    Should the test button work?
	How should I wire my shop?
	Underground wiring
	Doorbell/telephone/cable other service wiring hints
	Aluminum wiring
	I'm buying a house!  What should I do?
	What is this weird stuff?  Old style wiring
	Where do I buy stuff?
	Copper wire characteristics table


Subject: Introduction/Disclaimers

	Although we've done a fair bit of wiring, we are not
	electricians, and we cannot be responsible for what you do.  If
	you're at all uncertain about what is correct or safe, *don't
	do it*.  Contact someone qualified -- a licensed electrician,
	or your local electrical inspector.  Electricity is no joke;
	mistakes can result in shocks, fires, or electrocution.

	Furthermore, our discussion is based on the U.S. National
	Electrical Code (NEC) and the Canadian Electrical code (CEC).
	To the best of our abilities, we have confirmed every detail
	with the electrical code, but we don't quote sections
	simply to keep this thing readable.  If you think we're wrong,
	we invite you to correct us, but please - quote references!

	The NEC and the CEC do not, in and of themselves, have the
	force of law.  Many municipalities adopt it en toto.  Others,
	however, do not.  Check your with your local building
	department (and <provincial> Hydro Inspection Offices in
	Canada) to find out what applies in your area.  Also,
	your local electrical utility may also have special requirements
	for electrical service installation.  Bear in mind, too, that
	we say here applies primarily to ordinary single-family
	residences.  Multi-family dwellings, mobile homes, commercial
	establishments, etc., are sometimes governed by different
	rules.

	Also note that, contrary to popular belief in the U.S. (and in
	some parts of Canada), Canada is not a wholly-owned subsidiary
	of the U.S.  Consequently, the NEC does not apply in Canada.
	Lots of things are the same, including voltages, line
	frequencies, and the laws of physics.  But there are a number
	of crucial differences in the regulations.  Where we can, we've
	noted them, flagging the relevant passages with ``NEC'' or
	``CEC''.

	Remember that the CEC and NEC are minimal standards.  It is often
	smart to go beyond their minimal requirements.

Subject: What is the NEC?  Where can I get a copy?

	The NEC is a model electrical code devised and published by the
	National Fire Protection Association, an insurance industry group.
	It's revised every three years.  The 1993 version has been released.
	You can buy a copy at a decent bookstore, or by calling them directly
	at 800-344-3555.  The code exists in several versions.  There's the
	full text, which is fairly incomprehensible.  There's an abridged
	edition, which has only the sections likely to apply to most houses.
	And there's the NEC Handbook, which contains the ``authorized
	commentary'' on the code, as well as the full text.  That's the
	recommended version.  Unfortunately, there's no handbook for
	the abridged edition.  And the full handbook is expensive --
	US$65 plus shipping and handling.

Subject: What is the CEC?  Where can I get a copy?

	The Canadian Standards Association is an organization made up
	of various government agencies, power utilities, insurance
	companies, electrical manufacturers and other organizations.
	The CSA publishes CSA Standard C22.1 which is updated every two
	or three years.  Each province adopts, with some amendments,
	this standard and publishes a province-specific code book.
	Since each province publishes its own slightly modified
	standard, it would be somewhat confusing to obtain the CSA
	standard itself.  In this FAQ, "CEC" really means the
	appropriate provincial standard.  In particular, this FAQ is
	derived from the Ontario Hydro Electrical Safety Code, 20th
	edition (1990).  Which is in turn based on CSA C22.1-1990 (16th
	edition).  While differences exist between the provinces, an
	attempt has been made to avoid specific-to-Ontario detail.

	The appropriate provincial code can be obtained from electrical
	inspection offices of your provincial power authority.  In
	Ontario, it's Ontario Hydro.  The Ontario Hydro book isn't
	overly fat.  It's about C$25, and includes mailed updates.  I
	hear that these standards are somewhat easier to read than the
	equivalent NEC publications.

	Don't bother asking in Quebec - DIY wiring is banned throughout
	the province.

Subject: Can I do my own wiring?  Extra pointers?

	In most places, homeowners are allowed to do their own wiring.
	In some, they're not.  Check with your local electrical
	inspector.  Most places won't permit you to do wiring on other's
	homes for money without a license.  Nor are you permitted to do
	wiring in "commercial" buildings.  Multiple dwellings (eg: duplexes)
	are usually considered "semi-commercial" or "commercial".  However,
	many jurisdictions will permit you to work on semi-commercial
	wiring if you're supervised by a licensed electrician - if you can
	find one willing to supervise.

	If you do your own wiring, an important point:

	Do it NEAT and WELL!  What you really want to aim for is a better
	job than an electrician will do.  After all, it's your own home,
	and it's you or your family that might get killed if you make
	a mistake.  An electrician has time pressures, has the skills
	and knows the tricks of the trade to do a fast, safe job.
	In this FAQ we've consciously given a few recommendations that
	are in excess of code, because we feel that it's reasonable,
	and will impress the inspector.

	The inspector will know that you're an amateur.  You have to
	earn his trust.  The best way of doing this is to spend your
	time doing as neat a job as possible.  Don't cut corners.
	Exceed specifications.  Otherwise, the inspector may get extremely
	picky and fault you on the slightest transgressions.

	Don't try to hide anything from the inspector.

	Use the proper tools.  Ie: don't use a bread knife to strip
	wires, or twist wires with your fingers.  The inspector
	won't like it, and the results won't be that safe.  And it
	takes longer.  And you're more likely to stick a hunk of
	12ga wire through your hand that way.

	Don't handle house wire when it's very cold (eg: below -10C
	or 16F).  Thermoplastic house wire, particularly older types
	become very brittle.

Subject: What do I need in the way of tools?

	First, there's the obvious -- a hammer, a drill, a few
	screwdrivers, both straight and Phillips-head.  If you're 
	lucky enough to live in Canada (or find a source of CSA-approved
	devices) you need Robertson ("square recess") screwdrivers
	(#1 and #2) instead of phillips.

	For drilling a few holes, a 3/4" or 1" spade bit and 1/4" or
	3/8" electric drill will do.  If you're doing a lot, or
	are working with elderly lumber, we recommend a 1/2" drill
	(right-angle drills are wonderful.  Can be rented) and
	3/4" or 1" screw-point auger drill bits.  These bits pull
	you through, so they're much faster and less fatiguing, even
	in 90 year old hardwood timbers.

	Screw-driver bits are useful for drills, expecially if you
	install your electrical boxes using screws (drywall screws
	work well).
	
	For stripping wire, use a real wire stripper, not a knife or
	ordinary wire cutters.  Don't buy the $3 K-mart "combo stripper,
	crimper and bottle opener" types.  You should expect to pay
	$15 to $20 for a good "plier-type" pair.  It will have sized
	stripping holes, and won't nick or grab the wire - it should
	be easy to strip wire with it.  One model has a small hole in the
	blade for forming exact wire loops for screw terminals.  There
	are fancier types (autostrip/cut), but they generally aren't
	necessary, and pros usually don't use them.

	A pair of diagonal side cutter pliers are useful for clipping ends
	in constricted places.  Don't use these for stripping wire.

	You will need linesman pliers for twisting wires for wire nuts.

	You should have a pair of needle-nose pliers for fiddling
	inside boxes and closing loops, but it's better to form wire
	loops with a "loop former hole" on your wire stripper - more
	accurate.

	If you're using non-metallic cable, get a cable stripper for
	removing the sheath.  Or, do what some pros do, they nick the
	end of the sheath, grab the ground wire with a pair of pliers,
	and simply rip the sheath back using the ground wire as a
	"zipper", and cut the sheath off.  You shouldn't try to strip
	the sheath with a knife point, because it's too easy to
	slash the insulation on the conductors.  Apparently Stanley
	utility knives fitted with linoleum cutters (hooked blades)
	can be used to strip sheath, but there is still the possibility
	that you'll gouge the conductors.

	For any substantial amount of work with armored cable, it's well
	worth your while to invest in a rotary cable splitter (~US$ 18).
	Hack saws are tricky to use without cutting into the wire
	or the insulation.

	Three-prong outlet testers are a quick check for properly-wired
	outlets.  About $6.  Multimeters tell you more, but are a lot more
	expensive, and probably not worth it for most people.  A simple
	voltage sensor, which can detect potential through an insulated
	wire not supplying any devices, is extremely helpful; they cost
	about US$ 10 at Radio Shack.

	You should have a voltage detector - to check that the wires are
	dead before doing work on them.  Neon-bulb version are cheap ($2-3)
	and work well.  If you get more serious, a "audible alarm" type is
	good for tracing circuits without a helper.  (Though I've been known
	to lock the drill on, and hit breakers until the scream stops ;-)

	For running wires through existing walls, you need fish tape.
	Often, two tapes are needed, though sometimes, a bent hanger or
	a length of thin chain will suffice.  Fish tapes can be rented.

	Electrical tape.  Lots of it ;-)  Seriously, a good and competent
	wiring job will need very little tape.  The tape is useful for
	wrapping dicy insulation in repair work.  Another use is to wrap 
	around the body of outlets and switches to cover the termination
	screws - I don't do this, but drywall contractors prefer it (to
	prevent explosions when the drywall knife collides with a live outlet
	that has no cover plate).

Subject: What is UL listing?

	The UL stands for "Underwriters Laboratory".  It used to be
	an Insurance Industry organization, but now it is independent
	and non-profit.  It tests electrical components and equipment
	for potential hazards.  When something is UL-listed, that means
	that the UL has tested the device, and it meets their requirements
	for safety - ie: fire or shock hazard.  It doesn't necessarily
	mean that the device actually does what it's supposed to, just
	that it probably won't kill you.

	The UL does not have power of law in the U.S. -- you are
	permitted to buy and install non-UL-listed devices.  However,
	insurance policies sometimes have clauses in them that will
	limit their liability in case of a claim made in response to
	the failure of a non-UL-listed device.  Furthermore, in
	many situations the NEC will require that a wiring component
	used for a specific purpose is UL-listed for that purpose.
	Indirectly, this means that certain parts of your wiring
	must be UL-listed before an inspector will approve it and/or
	occupancy permits issued.
	
Subject: What is CSA approval?

	Every electrical device or component must be certified by the
	Canadian Standards Association before it can be sold in
	Canada.  Implicit in this is that all wiring must be done
	with CSA-approved materials.  They perform testing similar to
	the UL (a bit more stringent), except that CSA approval is
	required by law.

	Again, like the UL, if a fire was caused by non-CSA-approved
	equipment, your insurance company may not have to pay the
	claim.

	In Canada, there is a branch organization of the UL, called ULC
	(UL of Canada).  ULC does not have power of law, and seems to
	be more a liason group between the CSA and insurance
	companies.

Subject: Are there any cheaper, easier to read books on wiring?

	USA: The following three books were suggested by our readers

	    Residential Wiring
	    by Jeff Markell,
	    Craftsman Books,
	    Carlsbad CA for $18.25. ISBN 0-934041-19-9.

	    Practical Electrical Wiring
	    Residential, Farm and Industrial,  Based on the National
	    Electrical Code    ANSI/NFPA 70
	    Herbert P. Richter and W. Creighton Schwan
	    McGraw-Hill Book Co.

	    Wiring Simplified
	    H. P. Richter and W. C. Schwan
	    Park Publishing Co.
	
	Try to make sure that the book is based on the latest NEC
	revision.  Which is currently 1990.

	Canada: P.S. Knight authors and publishes a book called
	"Electrical Code Simplified".  There appears to be a version
	published specific to each province, and is very tied into the
	appropriate provincial code.  It focuses on residential wiring,
	and is indispensible for Canadian DIY'ers.  It is better to get
	this book than the CEC unless you do a lot of wiring (or answer
	questions on the net ;-).

	It is updated each time the provincial codes are.  This book is
	available at all DIY and hardware stores for less than C$10.

Subject: Inspections how and what?  Why should I get my wiring inspected?

	Most jurisdictions require that you obtain a permit and
	inspections of any wiring that is done.  Amongst other more
	mundane bureaucratic reasons (like insurance companies not
	liking to have to pay claims), a permit and inspections
	provides some assurance that you, your family, your neighbors
	or subsequent owners of your home don't get killed or lose
	their homes one night due to a sloppy wiring job.

	Most jurisdictions have the power to order you to vacate your
	home, or order you to tear out any wiring done without a
	permit.  California, for instance, is particularly nasty about
	this.

	If fire starts in your home, and un-inspected wiring is at
	fault, insurance companies will often refuse to pay the damage
	claims.

	In general, the process goes like this:
		- you apply to your local inspections office or building
		  department for a permit.  You should have a sketch or
		  detailed drawing of what you plan on doing.  This is
		  a good time to ask questions on any things you're not
		  sure of.  If you're doing major work, they may impose
		  special conditions on you, require loading
		  calculations and ask other questions.  At this point
		  they will tell you which inspections you will need.
		- If you're installing a main panel, you will need to
		  have the panel and service connections inspected
		  before your power utility will provide a connection.
		  This is sometimes done by the local power authority
		  rather than the usual inspectors.
		- After installing the boxes and wiring, but before
		  the insulation/walls go up, you will need a
		  "rough-in" inspection.
		- After the walls are up, and the wiring is complete,
		  you will need a "final inspection".

Subject: My house doesn't meet some of these rules and regulations.
	Do I have to upgrade?

	In general, there is no requirement to upgrade older dwellings,
	though there are some exceptions (ie: smoke detectors in some
	cases).  However, any new work must be done according to the
	latest electrical code.  Also, if you do ``major'' work, you
	may be required to upgrade certain existing portions or all
	of your system.  Check with your local electrical inspector.

Subject: A word on voltages: 110/115/117/120/125/220/240

	One thing where things might get a bit confusing is the
	different numbers people bandy about for the voltage of
	a circuit.  One person might talk about 110V, another 117V
	or another 120V.  These are all, in fact, exactly the same
	thing...  In North America the utility companies are required
	to supply a split-phase 240 volt (+-5%) feed to your house.
	This works out as two 120V +- 5% legs.  Additionally, since there
	are resistive voltage drops in the house wiring, it's not
	unreasonable to find 120V has dropped to 110V or 240V has dropped
	to 220V by the time the power reaches a wall outlet.  Especially
	at the end of an extension cord or long circuit run.  For a number
	of reasons, some historical, some simple personal orneryness,
	different people choose call them by slightly different numbers.
	This FAQ has chosen to be consistent with calling them "110V" and
	"220V", except when actually saying what the measured voltage will
	be.  Confusing?  A bit.  Just ignore it.

	One thing that might make this a little more understandable
	is that the nameplates on equipment ofen show the lower (ie: 110V
	instead of 120V) value.  What this implies is that the device
	is designed to operate properly when the voltage drops that
	low.

	208V is *not* the same as 240V.  208V is the voltage between
	phases of a 3-phase "Y" circuit that is 120V from neutral to any
	hot.   480V is the voltage between phases of a 3-phase "Y"
	circuit that's 277V from hot to neutral.

	In keeping with 110V versus 120V strangeness, motors intended
	to run on 480V three phase are often labelled as 440V...

Subject: What does an electrical service look like?

	There are logically four wires involved with supplying the
	main panel with power.  Three of them will come from the utility
	pole, and a fourth (bare) wire comes from elsewhere.

 	The bare wire is connected to one or more long metal bars pounded
 	into the ground, or to a wire buried in the foundation, or sometimes
 	to the water supply pipe (has to be metal, continuous to where
	the main water pipe entering the house.  Watch out for galvanic
	action conductivity "breaks" (often between copper and iron pipe).
	This is the "grounding conductor".  It is there to make sure that
	the third prong on your outlets is connected to ground.  This wire
	normally carries no current.

	One of the other wires will be white (or black with white or
	yellow stripes, or sometimes simply black).  It is the neutral wire.
	It is connected to the "centre tap" (CEC; "center tap" in the
	NEC ;-) of the distribution transformer supplying the power.  It
	is connected to the grounding conductor in only one place (often
	inside the panel).  The neutral and ground should not be connected
	anywhere else.  Otherwise, weird and/or dangerous things may happen.

	Furthermore, there should only be one grounding system in
	a home.  Some codes require more than one grounding electrode.
	These will be connected together, or connected to the neutral
	at a common point - still one grounding system.  Adding additional
	grounding electrodes connected to other portions of the house
	wiring is unsafe and contrary to code.

	If you add a subpanel, the ground and neutral are usually
	brought as separate conductors from the main panel, and are
	not connected together in the subpanel (ie: still only one
	neutral-ground connection).  However, in some situations 
	(certain categories of separate buildings) you actually do
	have to provide a second grounding electrode - consult your
	inspector.

	The other two wires will usually be black, and are the "hot"
	wires.  They are attached to the distribution transformer as
	well.

	The two black wires are 180 degrees out of phase with each
	other.  This means if you connect something to both hot wires,
	the voltage will be 220 volts.  If you connect something to the
	white and either of the two blacks you will get 110V.

	Some panels seem to only have three wires coming into them.
	This is either because the neutral and ground are connected
	together at a different point (eg: the meter or pole) and one
	wire is doing dual-duty as both neutral and ground, or in some
	rare occasions, the service has only one hot wire (110V only
	service).

Subject: What is a circuit?

	Inside the panel, connections are made to the incoming wires.
	These connections are then used to supply power to selected
	portions of the home.  There are three different combinations:
		1) one hot, one neutral, and ground: 110V circuit.
		2) two hots, no neutral, and ground: 220V circuit.
		3) two hots, neutral, and ground: 220V circuit + neutral,
		   and/or two 110V circuits with a common neutral.

	(1) is used for most circuits supplying receptacles and
	lighting within your house.  (3) is usually used for supplying
	power to major appliances such as stoves, and dryers - they
	often have need for both 220V and 110V, or for bringing several
	circuits from the panel box to a distribution point.  (2) is
	usually for special 220V motor circuits, electric heaters, or
	air conditioners.

	[Note: In the US, the NEC frequently permits a circuit similar
	to (2) be used for stoves and dryers - namely, that there
	are two hot wires, and a wire that does dual duty as neutral
	and ground, and is connected to the frame as well as providing
	the neutral for 110V purposes - three prong plugs instead
	of four (*only* for stoves/dryers connected to the main panel.
	When connected to most sub-panels, 4 prong plugs and receptacles
	are required).  In our not-so-humble opinion this is crazy, but
	the NFPA claims that this practice was re-evaluated for the 1992 NEC,
	and found to be safe.  Check your local codes, or inquire as to
	local practice -- there are restrictions on when this is
	permissible.]

	(1) is usually wired with three conductor wire: black for hot,
	white for neutral, and bare for grounding.

	(2) and (3) have one hot wire coloured red, the other black, a
	bare wire for grounding, and in (3) a white wire for neutral.

	You will sometimes see (2) wired with just a black, white and ground
	wire.  Since the white is "hot" in this case, both the NEC and CEC
	requires that the white wire be "permanently marked" at the ends
	to indicate that it is a live wire.  Usually done with paint, nail
	polish or sometimes electrical tape.

	Each circuit is attached to the main wires coming into the
	panel through a circuit breaker or fuse.

	There are, in a few locales, circuits that look like (1), (2)
	or (3) except that they have two bare ground wires.  Some places
	require this for hot tubs and the like (one ground is "frame ground",
	the other attaches to the motor).  This may or may not be an
	alternative to GFCI protection.

Subject: "grounding" versus "grounded" versus "neutral".

	According to the terminology in the CEC and NEC, the
	"grounding" conductor is for the safety ground, i.e., the green
	or bare wire.  The word "neutral" is reserved for the white when
	you have a circuit with more than one "hot" wire.  Since the white
	wire is connected to neutral and the grounding conductor inside the
	panel, the proper term is "grounded conductor".  However, the
	potential confusion between "grounded conductor" and "grounding
	conductor" can lead to potentially lethal mistakes - you should
	never use the bare wire as a "grounded conductor" or white wire
	as the "grounding conductor", even though they are connected
	together in the panel.

	[But not in subpanels - subpanels are fed neutral and ground
	separately from the main panel.  Usually.]

	In the trade, and in common usage, the word "neutral" is used
	for "grounded conductor".  This FAQ uses "neutral" simply to
	avoid potential confusion.  We recommend that you use "neutral"
	too.  Thus the white wire is always (except in some light
	switch applications) neutral.  Not ground.

Subject: What does a fuse or breaker do?  What are the differences?

	Fuses and circuit breakers are designed to interrupt the power
	to a circuit when the current flow exceeds safe levels.  For
	example, if your toaster shorts out, a fuse or breaker should
	"trip", protecting the wiring in the walls from melting.  As
	such, fuses and breakers are primarily intended to protect the
	wiring -- UL or CSA approval supposedly indicates that the
	equipment itself won't cause a fire.

	Fuses contain a narrow strip of metal which is designed to melt
	(safely) when the current exceeds the rated value, thereby
	interrupting the power to the circuit.  Fuses trip relatively
	fast.  Which can sometimes be a problem with motors which have
	large startup current surges.  For motor circuits, you can use
	a "time-delay" fuse (one brand is "fusetron") which will avoid
	tripping on momentary overloads.  A fusetron looks like a
	spring-loaded fuse.  A fuse can only trip once, then it must be
	replaced.

	Breakers are fairly complicated mechanical devices.  They
	usually consist of one spring loaded contact which is latched
	into position against another contact.  When the current flow
	through the device exceeds the rated value, a bimetallic strip
	heats up and bends.  By bending it "trips" the latch, and the
	spring pulls the contacts apart.  Circuit breakers behave
	similarly to fusetrons - that is, they tend to take longer to
	trip at moderate overloads than ordinary fuses.  With high
	overloads, they trip quickly.  Breakers can be reset a finite
	number of times - each time they trip, or are thrown
	when the circuit is in use, some arcing takes place, which
	damages the contacts.  Thus, breakers should not be used in
	place of switches unless they are specially listed for the
	purpose.

	Neither fuses nor breakers "limit" the current per se.  A dead
	short on a circuit can cause hundreds or sometimes even
	thousands of amperes to flow for a short period of time, which
	can often cause severe damage.

Subject: Breakers?  Can't I use fuses?

	Statistics show that fuse panels have a significantly higher
	risk of causing a fire than breaker panels.  This is usually
	due to the fuse being loosely screwed in, or the contacts
	corroding and heating up over time, or the wrong size fuse
	being installed, or the proverbial "replace the fuse with a
	penny" trick.

	Since breakers are more permanently installed, and have better
	connection mechanisms, the risk of fire is considerably less.

	Fuses are prone to explode under extremely high overload.  When
	a fuse explodes, the metallic vapor cloud becomes a conducting
	path.  Result?  From complete meltdown of the electrical panel,
	melted service wiring, through fires in the electrical
	distribution transformer and having your house burn down.
	[This author has seen it happen.]  Breakers won't do this.

	Many jurisdictions, particularly in Canada, no longer permit
	fuse panels in new installations.  The NEC does permit new
	fuse panels in some rare circumstances (requiring the special
	inserts to "key" the fuseholder to specific size fuses)

	Some devices, notably certain large air conditioners, require fuse
	protection in addition to the breaker at the panel.  The fuse
	is there to protect the motor windings from overload.  Check the
	labeling on the unit.  This is usually only on large permanently
	installed motors.  The installation instructions will tell you
	if you need one.

Subject: What size wire should I use?

	For a 20 amp circuit, use 12 gauge wire.  For a 15 amp circuit,
	you can use 14 gauge wire (in most locales).  For a long run,
	though, you should use the next larger size wire, to avoid
	voltage drops.  12 gauge is only slightly more expensive than
	14 gauge, though it's stiffer and harder to work with.

	Here's a quick table for normal situations.  Go up a size for
	more than 100 foot runs, when the cable is in conduit, or
	ganged with other wires in a place where they can't dissipate
	heat easily:

		Gauge		Amps
		14		15
		12		20
		10		30
		8		40
		6		65
	
	We don't list bigger sizes because it starts getting very dependent
	on the application and precise wire type.

Subject: Where do these numbers come from?

	There are two considerations, voltage drop and heat buildup.
	The smaller the wire is, the higher the resistance is.  When
	the resistance is higher, the wire heats up more, and there is
	more voltage drop in the wiring.  The former is why you need
	higher-temperature insulation and/or bigger wires for use in
	conduit; the latter is why you should use larger wire for long
	runs.

	Neither effect is very significant over very short distances.
	There are some very specific exceptions, where use of smaller
	wire is allowed.  The obvious one is the line cord on most
	lamps.  Don't try this unless you're certain that your use fits
	one of those exceptions; you can never go wrong by using larger
	wire.

Subject: What does "14-2" mean?

	This is used to describe the size and quantity of conductors
	in a cable.  The first number specifies the gauge.  The second
	the number of current carrying conductors in the wire - but
	remember there's usually an extra ground wire.  "14-2" means
	14 gauge, two insulated current carrying wires, plus bare ground.

	-2 wire usually has a black, white and bare ground wire.  Sometimes
	the white is red instead for 220V circuits without neutral.  In
	the latter case, the sheath is usually red too.

	-3 wire usually has a black, red, white and bare ground wire.
	Usually carrying 220V with neutral.

Subject: What is a "wirenut"/"marrette"/"marr connector"?  How are they
	used?

	A wire nut is a cone shaped threaded plastic thingummy that's used
	to connect wires together.  "Marrette" or "Marr connector"
	are trade names.  You'll usually use a lot of them in DIY wiring.

	In essence, you strip the end of the wires about an inch, twist them
	together, then twist the wirenut on.

	Though some wirenuts advertise that you don't need to twist the
	wire, do it anyways - it's more mechanically and electrically
	secure.

	There are many different sizes of wire nut.  You should check
	that the wire nut you're using is the correct size for the
	quantity and sizes of wire you're connecting together.

	Don't just gimble the wires together with a pair of pliers or
	your fingers.  Use a pair of blunt nose ("linesman") pliers,
	and carefully twist the wires tightly and neatly.  Sometimes
	it's a good idea to trim the resulting end to make sure it
	goes in the wirenut properly.

	Some people wrap the "open" end of the wirenut with electrical
	tape.  This is probably not a good idea - the inspector may
	tear it off during an inspection.  It's usually done because
	a bit of bare wire is exposed outside the wire nut - instead
	of taping it, the connection should be redone.

Subject: What is a GFI/GFCI?

	A GFCI is a ``ground-fault circuit interrupter''.  It measures
	the current current flowing through the hot wire and the
	neutral wire.  If they differ by more than a few milliamps, the
	presumption is that current is leaking to ground via some other
	path.  This may be because of a short circuit to the chassis of
	an appliance, or to the ground lead, or through a person.  Any
	of these situations is hazardous, so the GFCI trips, breaking
	the circuit.

	GFCIs do not protect against all kinds of electric shocks.  If,
	for example, you simultaneously touched the hot and neutral
	leads of a circuit, and no part of you was grounded, a GFCI
	wouldn't help.  All of the current that passed from the hot
	lead into you would return via the neutral lead, keeping the
	GFCI happy.

	The two pairs of connections on a GFCI outlet are not symmetric.
	One is labeled LOAD; the other, LINE.  The incoming power feed
	*must* be connected to the LINE side, or the outlet will not be
	protected.  The LOAD side can be used to protect all devices
	downstream from it.  Thus, a whole string of outlets can be
	covered by a single GFCI outlet.

Subject: Where should GFCIs be used?

	The NEC mandates GFCIs for 110V, 15A or 20A single phase
|	outlets, in bathrooms, kitchens within 6' of the sink, wet-bar
|	sinks, roof outlets, garages, unfinished basements or crawl spaces,
	outdoors, near a pool, or just about anywhere else where you're likely
	to encounter water or dampness.  There are exceptions for inaccessible
	outlets, those dedicated to appliances ``occupying fixed space'',
	typically refrigerators and freezers, and for sump pumps and
	laundry appliances.

|	The NEC now requires that if your replace an outlet in a
|	location now requiring GFCI, you must install GFCI protection.
|	Note in particular - kitchen and bathroom outlets.

|	When using the "fixed appliance" rule for avoiding GFCI outlets,
|	single outlet receptacles must be used for single appliances,
|	duplex receptacles may be used for two appliances.

	The CEC does not mandate as many GFCIs.  In particular, there
	is no requirement to protect kitchen outlets, or most garage or
	basement outlets.  Basement outlets must be protected if you
	have a dirt floor, garage outlets if they're near the door to
	outside.  Bathrooms and most exterior outlets must have GFCIs,
	as do pools systems and jacuzzi or whirlpool pumps.

	There are many rules about GFCIs with pools and so on.  This
	is outside of our expertise, so we're not covering it in
	detail.  See your inspector.

	When replacing an outlet, it must now be GFCI-protected if
	such would now be required for a new installation.  That is,
	a kitchen outlet installed per the 1984 code need not have
	been protected, but if that outlet is ever replaced, GFCI
	protection must now be added (under NEC).  This is explicit
	in the 1993 NEC, and inspector-imposed in Canada.

	Even if you are not required to have GFCI protection, you may
	want to consider installing it anyway.  Unless you need a GFCI
	breaker (see below), the cost is low.  In the U.S., GFCI
	outlets can cost as little as US$8.  (Costs are a bit higher in
	Canada:  C$12.)  Evaluate your own risk factors.  Does your
	finished basement ever get wet?  Do you have small children?
	Do you use your garage outlets to power outdoor tools?  Does
	water or melted snow ever puddle inside your garage?

Subject: Where shouldn't I use a GFCI?

	GFCIs are generally not used on circuits that (a) don't pose a
	safety risk, and (b) are used to power equipment that must run
	unattended for long periods of time.  Refrigerators, freezers,
	and sump pumps are good examples.  The rationale is that GFCIs
	are sometimes prone to nuisance trips.  Some people claim that
	the inductive delay in motor windings can cause a momentary
	current imbalance, tripping the GFCI.  Note, though, that most
	GFCI trips are real; if you're getting a lot of trips for no
	apparent reason, you'd be well-advised to check your wiring
	before deciding that the GFCI is broken or useless.

Subject: What is the difference between a GFCI outlet and a GFCI breaker?

	For most situations, you can use either a GFCI outlet as the
	first device on the circuit, or you can install a breaker with
	a built-in GFCI.  The former is generally preferred, since GFCI
	breakers are quite expensive.  For example, an ordinary GE
	breaker costs ~US$5; the GFCI model costs ~US$35.  There is one
	major exception:  if you need to protect a ``multi-wire branch
	circuit'' (two or more circuits sharing a common neutral wire),
	such as a Canadian-style kitchen circuit, you'll need a
	multi-pole GFCI breaker.  Unfortunately, these are expensive;
	the cost can range into the hundreds of dollars, depending on
	what brand of panel box you have.  But if you must protect such
	a circuit (say, for a pool heater), you have no choice.

	One more caveat -- GFCI outlets are bulky.  You may want to use
	an oversize box when installing them.  On second thought, use
	large (actually deep) boxes everywhere.  You'll thank yourself
	for it.

	Incidentally, if you're installing a GFCI to ensure that one
	specific outlet is protected (such as a bathroom), you don't
	really have to go to all of the trouble to find the first
	outlet in the circuit, you could simply find the first outlet
	in the bathroom, and not GFCI anything upstream of it.  But
	protecting the whole circuit is preferred.

	When you install a GFCI, it's a good idea to use the little
	"ground fault protected" stickers that come with it and mark
	the outlets downstream of the GFCI.  You can figure out which
	outlets are "downstream", simply by tripping the GFCI with the
	test button and see which outlets are dead.

|	Note that the labels are mandatory for GFCI-protected-but-ungrounded
|	three prong outlets according to the NEC.

Subject: What's the purpose of the ground prong on an outlet, then?

	Apart from their use in electronics, which we won't comment on,
	and for certain fluorescent lights (they won't turn on without
	a good ground connection), they're intended to guard against
	insulation failures within the device.  Generally, the case of
	the appliance is connected to the ground lead.  If there's an
	insulation failure that shorts the hot lead to the case, the
	ground lead conducts the electricity away safely (and possibly
	trips the circuit breaker in the process).  If the case is not
	grounded and such a short occurs, the case is live -- and if
	you touch it while you're grounded, you'll get zapped.  Of
	course, if the circuit is GFCI-protected, it will be a very
	tiny zap -- which is why you can use GFCIs to replace
	ungrounded outlets (both NEC and CEC).

	There are some appliances that should *never* be grounded.  In
	particular, that applies to toasters and anything else with
	exposed conductors.  Consider:  if you touch the heating
	electrode in a toaster, and you're not grounded, nothing will
	happen.  If you're slightly grounded, you'll get a small shock;
	the resistance will be too high.  But if the case were
	grounded, and you were holding it, you'd be the perfect path to
	ground...

Subject: Why is one prong wider than the other?  Polarization

	Nowadays, many two-prong devices have one prong wider than the
	other.  This is so that the device could rely (not guaranteed!)
	on one specific wire being neutral, and the other hot.
	This is particularly advantageous in light fixtures, where the
	the shell should neutral (safety), or other devices which want to
	have an approximate ground reference (ie: some radios).

	Most 2-prong extension cords have wide prongs too.

	This requires that you wire your outlets and plugs the right
	way around.  You want the wide prong to be neutral, and the
	narrow one hot.  Most outlets have a darker metal for the
	hot screw, and lighter coloured screw for the neutral.
	If not, you can usually figure out which is which by which
	prong the terminating screw connects to.

Subject: What kind of outlets do I need in a kitchen?

	The NEC requires at least two 20 amp ``small appliance
	circuits'' for kitchen counters.  The CEC requires split-duplex
	receptacles.  Outlets must be installed such that no point is more
	than 24" (NEC) (900 mm CEC) from an outlet.  Every counter wider
	than 12" (NEC) or 300 mm (CEC) must have at least one outlet.
	The circuit these outlets are on may not feed any outlets except
	in the kitchen, pantry, or dining room.  Furthermore, these circuits
	are in addition to any required for refrigerators, stoves, microwaves,
	lighting, etc.  Non-dedicated outlets within 6' of a sink *must* be
	protected by a GFCI (NEC only).

|	Face-up outlets are prohibited on kitchen counters.

	Split duplex receptacles are fed with a 220V circuit.  The tab
	is broken on the hot side of the outlet, and one hot goes to
	the upper outlet, and the other hot goes to the lower outlet.
	The neutral connects to both outlets through one screw.  When
	"carrying through" to another outlet, the neutral must be
	pigtailed, such that removing the outlet, or having the neutral
	connection fall off doesn't cause the neutral to disconnect
	from downstream outlets.

Subject: Where must outlets and switches be in bathrooms?

	There must be at least one outlet in each bathroom, adjacent to
	the sink, in addition to any outlet that may be incorporated in
	the light fixture.  All such outlets *must* be GFCI-protected.

|	The NEC says that switches may not be installed inside bathtubs
|	or showers.  The CEC says that switches may not be installed
|	"within reach" of bathtubs or showers (consult an inspector
|	if you can't make it at least four feet).

Subject: What is Romex/NM/NMD?  What is BX?  When should I use each?

	Romex is a brand name for a type of plastic insulated wire.
	Sometimes called non-metallic sheath.  The formal name is NM.
	This is suitable for use in dry, protected areas (ie: inside
	stud walls, on the sides of joists etc.), that are not subject
	to mechanical damage or excessive heat.  Most newer homes are
	wired almost exclusively with NM wire.  There are several
	different categories of NM cable.

	BX cable -- technically known as armored cable or "AC" has a
	flexible aluminum or steel sheath over the conductors and is
	fairly resistant to damage.

	TECK cable is AC with an additional external thermoplastic
	sheath.
	
	Protection for cable in concealed locations: where NM or AC cable
	is run through studs, joists or similar wooden members, the outer
	surface of the cable must be kept at least 32mm/1.25" (CEC & NEC)
	from the edges of the wooden members, or the cable should be protected
	from mechanical injury.  This latter protection can take the form of
	metal plates (such as spare outlet box ends) or conduit.

	[Note: inspector-permitted practice in Canada suggests that armored
	cable, or flexible conduit can be used as the mechanical protection,
	but this is technically illegal.]

	Additional protection recommendations: [These are rules in the
	Canadian codes.  The 1993 NEC has many changes that bring
	it close to these rules.  These are reasonable answers to the
	vague "exposed to mechanical damage" in both the NEC and CEC.]

	    - NM cable should be protected against mechanical damage
	      where it passes through floors or on the surface of walls
	      in exposed locations under 5 feet from the floor.
	      Ie: use AC instead, flexible conduit, wooden guards etc.
	    - Where cable is suspended, as in, connections to furnaces
	      or water heaters, the wire should be protected.  Canadian
	      practice is usually to install a junction or outlet
	      box on the wall, and use a short length of AC cable
	      or NM cable in flexible conduit to "jump" to the appliance.
	      Stapling NM to a piece of lumber is also sometimes used.
	    - Where NM cable is run in close proximity to heating
	      ducts or pipe, heat transfer should be minimized by
	      means of a 25mm/1" air space, or suitable insulation
	      material (a wad of fiberglass).
	    - NM cable shall be supported within 300mm/1' of every box
	      or fitting, and at intervals of no more than 1.5m/5'.
	      Holes in joists or studs are considered "supports".
	      Some slack in the cable should be provided adjacent to
	      each box.  [while fishing cable is technically in violation,
	      it is permitted where "proper" support is impractical]
	    - 2 conductor NM cable should never be stapled on edge.
	      [Knight also insists on only one cable per staple, referring
	      to the "workmanship" clause, but this seems more honoured
	      in the breach...]
	    - cable should never be buried in plaster, cement or
	      similar finish, except were required by code [Ie: cable
	      burial with shallow bedrock.].
	    - cable should be protected where it runs behind baseboards.
	    - Cable may not be run on the upper edge of ceiling joists
	      or the lower edges of rafters where the headroom is more
	      than 1m (39").

	Whenever BX cable is terminated at a box with a clamp, small
	plastic bushings must be inserted in the end of the cable to
	prevent the clamps forcing the sharp ends of the armor through
	the insulation.

|	Whenever BX cable is buried in thermal insulation, 90C
|	wire should be selected, but derated in current carrying
|	capacity to 60C.

	BX is sometimes a good idea in a work shop unless covered by
	solid wall coverings.

	In places where damage is more likely (like on the back wall of
	a garage ;-), you may be required to use conduit, a
	UL- (or CSA-) approved metal pipe.  You use various types of
	fittings to join the pipe or provide entrance/exit for the
	wire.

	Service entrances frequently use a plastic conduit.

	In damp places (eg: buried wiring to outdoor lighting) you will
	need special wire (eg: CEC NMW90, NEC UF).  NMW90 looks like
	very heavy-duty NMD90.  You will usually need short lengths of
	conduit where the wire enters/exits the ground.  [See underground
	wiring section.]

 	Thermoplastic sheath wire (such as NM, NMW etc.) should not be
 	exposed to direct sunlight unless explicitly approved for that
 	purpose.

	Many electrical codes do not permit the routing of wire through
	furnace ducts, including cold air return plenums constructed
	by metal sheeting enclosing joist spaces.   The reason for this
	is that if there's a fire, the ducting will spread toxic gasses
	from burning insulation very rapidly through the building.
	Teflon insulated wire is permitted in plenums in many areas.
	
 	Canada appears to use similar wire designations to the US,
 	except that Canadian wire designations usually include the
 	temperature rating in Celsius.  Eg: "AC90" versus "AC".
	In the US, NM-B is 90 degrees celcius.

	NOTE: local codes vary.  This is one of the items that changes
	most often.  Eg: Chicago codes require conduit *everywhere*.
	There are very different requirements for mobile homes.
	Check your local codes, *especially* if you're doing anything
	that's the slightest out of the ordinary.

	Wire selection table (incomplete - the real tables are enormous,
	uncommon wire types or applications omitted)

	Condition			Type	CEC	NEC

	Exposed/Concealed dry		plastic	NMD90	NM
					armor	AC90	AC
						TECK90

	Exposed/Concealed damp		plastic	NMD90	NMC
					armor	ACWU90
						TECK90

	Exposed/Concealed wet		plastic	NMWU90
					armor	ACWU90
						TECK90
	
	Exposed to weather		plastic	NMWU
						TW etc.
					armor	TECK90
	
	Direct earth burial/		plastic	NMWU*	UF
	Service entrance			RWU
						TWU
					armor	RA90
						TECK90
						ACWU90
	[* NMWU not for service entrance]

Subject: Should I use plastic or metal boxes?

	The NEC permits use of plastic boxes with non-metallic cable
	only.  The reasoning is simple -- with armored cable, the box
	itself provides ground conductor continuity.  U.S. plastic
	boxes don't use metal cable clamps.

	The CEC is slightly different.  The CEC never permits cable
	armor as a grounding conductor.  However, you must still
	provide ground continuity for metallic sheath.  The CEC also
	requires grounding of any metal cable clamps on plastic boxes.

	The advantage of plastic boxes is comparatively minor even for
	non-metallic sheathed cable -- you can avoid making one ground
	connection and they sometimes cost a little less.  On the other
	hand, plastic boxes are more vulnerable to impacts.  For
	exposed or shop wiring, metal boxes are probably better.

|	NEC: Metal receptacle covers must be grounded, even on plastic
|	boxes.  This may be achieved by use of a switch with ground
|	connection.

Subject: Junction box positioning?

	A junction box is a box used only for connecting wires together.

	Junction boxes must be located in such a way that they're accessible
	later.  Ie: not buried under plaster.  Excessive use of junction
	boxes is often a sign of sloppy installation, and inspectors may
	get nasty.

Subject: Can I install a replacement light fixture?

	In general, one can replace fixtures freely, subject to a few
	caveats.  First, of course, one should check the amperage
	rating of the circuit.  If your heart is set on installing half
	a dozen 500 watt floodlights, you may need to run a new wire
	back to the panel box.  But there are some more subtle
	constraints as well.  For example, older house
	wiring doesn't have high-temperature insulation.  The excess
	heat generated by a ceiling-mounted lamp can and will cause the
	insulation to deteriorate and crack, with obvious bad results.
	Some newer fixtures are specifically marked for high
	temperature wire only.  (You may find, in fact, that your
	ceiling wiring already has this problem, in which case
	replacing any devices is a real adventure.)

	Other concerns include providing a suitable ground for some
	fluorescent fixtures, and making sure that the ceiling box and
	its mounting are strong enough to support the weight of a heavy
	chandelier or ceiling fan.  You may need to install a new box
	specifically listed for this purpose.  A 2x4 across the ceiling
	joists makes a good support.  Metal brackets are also available
	that can be fished into ceilings thru the junction box hole and
	mounted between the joists.

	There are special rules for recessed light fixtures such as
	"pot" lamps or heat lamps.  When these are installed in insulated
	ceilings, they can present a very substantial fire hazard.
	The CEC provides for the installation of pot lamps in insulated
	ceilings, provided that the fixture is boxed in a "coffin" (usually
	8'x16"x12" - made by making a pair of joists 12" high, and covering
	with plywood) that doesn't have any insulation.  (Yes, that's 8 *feet*
	long)

	NEC rules are somewhat less stringent.  They require at least 3"
	clearance between the fixture and any sort of thermal insulation.
	The rules also say that one should not obstruct free air movement,
	which means that a CEC-style ``coffin'' might be worthwhile.
	Presumably, that's up to the local inspector.  [The CEC doesn't
	actually mandate the coffin per-se, this seems to be an inspector
	requirement to make absolutely certain that the fixture can't get
	accidentally buried in insulation.  Ie: if you have insulation blown
	in later.]

	There are now fixtures that contain integral thermal cutouts and
	fairly large cases that can be buried directly in insulation.  They are
	usually limited to 75 watt bulbs, and are unfortunately, somewhat
	more expensive than the older types.  Before you use them, you should
	ensure that they have explicit UL or CSA approval for such uses.
	Follow the installation instructions carefully; the prescribed location
	for the sensor can vary.

	There does not yet appear to be a heat lamp fixture that is approved
	for use in insulation.  The "coffin" appears the only legal approach.

Subject: What does it mean when the lights brighten when a motor starts?

	This usually means that the neutral wire in the panel is
	loose.  Depending on the load balance, one hot wire may end up
	being more than 110V, and the other less than 110V, with
	respect to ground.  This is a very hazardous situation - it can
	destroy your electronic equipment, possibly start fires, and in
	some situations electrocute you (ie: some US jurisdictions
	require the stove frame connected to neutral).

	If this happens, contact your electrical authority immediately
	and have them come and check out the problem.

	Note: a brief (< 1 second) brightening is sometimes normal with
	lighting and motors on the same 220V with neutral circuit.  A
	loose main panel neutral will usually show increased brightness
	far longer than one second.  In case of doubt, get help.

Subject: What is 3 phase power?  Should I use it?  Can I get it in my house?

	Three phase power has three "hot" wires, 120 degrees out of
	phase with each other.  These are usually used for large motors
	because it is more "efficient", provides a bit more starting torque,
	and because the motors are simpler and hence cheaper.

	You're most likely to encounter a 3 phase circuit that shows
	110 volts between any hot and ground, and 208 volts between
	any two hots.  The latter shows the difference between a normal
	220V/110V common neutral circuit, which is 240 volts between the
	two hots.  There are 3 phase circuits with different voltages.

	Bringing in a 3 phase feed to your house is usually
	ridiculously expensive, or impossible.  If the equipment you
	want to run has a standard motor mount, it is *MUCH* cheaper to
	buy a new 110V or 220V motor for it.  In some cases it is
	possible to run 3 phase equipment on ordinary power if you have
	a "capacitor start" unit, or use a larger motor as a
	(auto-)generator.  These are tricky, but are a good solution if
	the motor is non-standard size, or too expensive or too big to
	replace.  The Taunton Press book ``The Small Shop'' has an
	article on how to do this if you must.

	Note that you lose any possible electrical efficiency by using
	such a converter.  The laws of thermodynamics guarantee that.

Subject: Is it better to run motors at 110 or 220?

	Theoretically, it doesn't make any difference.  However, there
	is a difference is the amount of power lost in the supply
|	wiring.  All things being equal, a 110V motor will lose 4 times
|	more power in the house wiring than a 220V motor.  This also
|	means that the startup surge loss will be less, and the motor
|	will get to speed quicker with 220V.  And in some circumstances,
	the smaller power loss will lead to longer motor life.

	This is usually irrelevant unless the supply wires are more
	than 50 feet long.

Subject: What is this nonsense about 3HP on 110V 15A circuits?

	It is a universal physical law that 1 HP is equal to 746
	watts.  Given heating loss, power factor and other inefficiencies,
	it is usually best to consider 1 HP is going to need 1000-1200
	watts.  A 110V 15A circuit can only deliver 1850 watts to a motor,
	so it cannot possibly be more than approximately 2 HP.  Given rational
	efficiency factors, 1.5HP is more like it.

	Some equipment manufacturers (Sears in particular, most router
	manufacturers in general ;-) advertise a HP rating that is far
	in excess of what is possible.  They are giving you a "stall
	horsepower" or similar.  That means the power is measured when
	the motor is just about to stop turning because of the load.
	What they don't mention is that if you kept it in that
	condition for more than a few seconds hopefully your breaker
	will trip, otherwise the motor will melt -- it's drawing far
	more current than it can continuously.

	When comparing motors, compare the continuous horsepower.  This
	should be on the motor nameplate.  If you can't find that figure,
	check the amperage rating, which is always present.

Subject: How do I convert two prong receptacles to three prong?

	Older homes frequently have two-prong receptacles instead
	of the more modern three.  These receptacles have no safety
	ground, and the cabling usually has no ground wire.  Neither
	the NEC or CEC permits installing new 2 prong receptacles anymore.

	There are several different approaches to solving this:
	    1) If the wiring is done through conduit or BX, and the
	       conduit is continuous back to the panel, you can connect
	       the third prong of a new receptacle to the receptacle
	       box.  NEC mainly - CEC frowns on this practice.
	    2) If there is a copper cold water pipe going nearby, and
	       it's continuous to the main house ground point, you can
	       run a conductor to it from the third prong.
|	       NEC: this can only be done if the point of attachment
|	       is within 5 feet of where the pipe enters the ground.
	    3) Run a ground conductor back to the main panel.
	    4) Easiest: install a GFCI receptacle.  The ground lug
	       should not be connected to anything, but the GFCI
	       protection itself will serve instead.  The GFCI
	       will also protect downstream (possibly also two prong
	       outlets).  If you do this to protect downstream outlets,
	       the grounds must not be connected together.  Since it
	       wouldn't be connected to a real ground, a wiring fault
	       could energize the cases of 3 prong devices connected
	       to other outlets.  Be sure, though, that there aren't
	       indirect ground plug connections, such as via the sheath
	       on BX cable.

	The CEC permits you to replace a two prong receptacle with a three
	prong if you fill the U ground with a non-conducting goop.
	Like caulking compound.  This is not permitted in the NEC.

|	The NEC requires that three prong receptacles without ground
|	that are protected by GFCI must be labelled as such.

Subject: Are you sure about GFCIs and ungrounded outlets?
	Should the test button work?

	We're sure about what the NEC and CEC say.  Remember, though,
	that your local codes may vary.  As for the TEST button -- there's
	a resistor connecting the LOAD side of the hot wire to the LINE
	side of the neutral wire when you press the TEST button.  Current
	through this resistor shows up as an imbalance, and trips the GFCI.
	This is a simple, passive, and reliable test, and doesn't require
	a real ground to work.  If your GFCI does not trip when you press
	the TEST button, it is very probably defective or miswired.  Again:
	if the test button doesn't work, something's broken, and potentially
	dangerous.  The problem should be corrected immediately.

	The instructions that come with some GFCIs specify that the ground
	wire must be connected.  We do not know why they say this.  The
	causes may be as mundane as an old instruction sheet, or with the
	formalities of UL or CSA listing -- perhaps the device was never
	tested without the ground wire being connected.  On the other hand,
	UL or CSA approval should only have been granted if the device
	behaves properly in *all* listed applications, including ungrounded
	outlet replacement.  (One of us called Leviton; their GFCIs are
	labeled for installation on grounded circuits only.  The technician
	was surprised to see that; he agreed that the NEC does not require
	it, and promised to investigate.)

Subject: How should I wire my shop?

	As with any other kind of wiring, you need enough power for all
	devices that will be on simultaneously.  The code specifies
	that you should stay under 80% of the nominal capacity of the
	circuit.  For typical home shop use, this means one circuit for
	the major power tools, and possibly one for a dust collector or
	shop vac.  Use at least 12 gauge wire -- many power tools have
	big motors, with a big start-up surge.  If you can, use 20 amp
	breakers (NEC), though CEC requires standard 20A receptacles
	which means you'd have to "replug" all your equipment.  Lights
	should either be on a circuit of their own -- and not shared
	with circuits in the rest of the house -- or be on at least two
	separate circuits.  The idea is that you want to avoid a
	situation where a blade is still spinning at several thousand
	RPM, while you're groping in the dark for the OFF switch.

	Do install lots of outlets.  It's easier to install them in the
	beginning, when you don't have to cut into an existing cable.
	It's useful if at least two circuits are accessible at each
	point, so you can run a shop vac or a compressor at the same
	time as the tool you really want.  But use metal boxes and
	plates, and maybe even metal-sheathed cable; you may have
	objects flying around at high speeds if something goes a bit
	wrong.

	Note that some jurisdictions have a "no horizontal wiring"
	rule in workshops or other unfinished areas that are used
	for working.  What this means is that all wiring must be
	run along structural members.  Ie: stapled to studs.

	Other possible shop circuits include heater circuits, 220V
	circuits for some large tools, and air compressor circuits.
	Don't overload circuits, and don't use extension cords if you
	can help it, unless they're rated for high currents.  (A coiled
	extension cord is not as safe as a straight length of wire of
	the same gauge.  Also, the insulation won't withstand as much
	heat, and heat dissipation is the critical issue.)

	If your shop is located at some remove from your main panel,
	you should probably install a subpanel, and derive your shop
	wiring from it.  If you have young children, you may want to
	equip this panel with a cut-off switch, and possibly a lock.
	If you want to install individual switches to ``safe''
	particular circuits, make sure you get ones rated high enough.
	For example, ordinary light switches are not safely able to
	handle the start-up surge generated by a table saw.  Buy
	``horsepower-rated'' switches instead.

	Finally, note that most home shops are in garages or unfinished
	basements; hence the NEC requirements for GFCIs apply.  And
	even if you ``know'' that you'd never use one of your shop
	outlets to run a lawn mower, the next owner of your house might
	have a different idea.

	Note: Fine Woodworking magazine often carries articles on shop
	wiring.  April 1992 is one place to start.

Subject: Doorbell/telephone/cable other service wiring hints.

	Auxiliary services, such as cable, telephone, doorbell, furnace
	control circuits etc. are generally considered to be "class 2"
	wiring by both the CEC and NEC.

	What this generally means is:

		1) class 2 and house power should not share conduit or
		   termination boxes.
		2) class 2 and house power should be 12" apart in walls
		   except where necessary.
		3) cross-over should be at 90 degrees.
	
	While the above may not be strictly necessary to the code, it
	is advantageous anyways - paralleling house power beside telephone
	lines tends to induce hum into the telephone.  Or could interfere
	with fancier furnace control systems.

	With telephone wiring, twisted pair can alleviate these problems,
	and there are new cable types that combine multiple services into
	one sheath.  Consult your inspector if you really want to violate
	the above recommendations.

Subject: Underground Wiring

	You will need to prepare a trench to specifications, use
	special wire, protect the wire with conduit or special plastic
	tubing and possibly lumber (don't use creosoted lumber, it rots
	thermoplastic insulation and acts as a catalyst in the corrosion
	of lead).  The transition from in-house to underground wire is
	generally via conduit.  All outdoor boxes must be specifically
	listed for the purpose, and contain the appropriate gaskets,
	fittings, etc.  If the location of the box is subject to immersion
	in water, a more serious style of water-proof box is needed.  And
	of course, don't forget the GFCIs.

	The required depths and other details vary from jurisdiction to
	jurisdiction, so we suggest you consult your inspector about
	your specific situation.

	A hint: buy a roll of bright yellow tape that says "buried power
	line" and bury it a few inches above where the wire has been placed.

Subject: Aluminum wiring

	During the 1970's, aluminum (instead of copper) wiring became
	quite popular and was extensively used.  Since that time,
	aluminum wiring has been implicated in a number of house fires,
	and most jurisdictions no longer permit it in new installations.
	We recommend, even if you're allowed to, that do not use it for new
	wiring.

	But don't panic if your house has aluminum wiring.  Aluminum
	wiring, when properly installed, can be just as safe as copper.
	Aluminum wiring is, however, very unforgiving of improper
	installation.  We will cover a bit of the theory behind potential
	problems, and what you can do to make your wiring safe.

	The main problem with aluminum wiring is a phenomenon known as
	"cold creep".  When aluminum wiring warms up, it expands.  When
	it cools down, it contracts.  Unlike copper, when aluminum goes
	through a number of warm/cool cycles it loses a bit of tightness each
	time.  To make the problem worse, aluminum oxidises, or corrodes
	when in contact with certain types of metal, so the resistance
	of the connection goes up.  Which causes it to heat up and corrode/
	oxidize still more.  Eventually the wire may start getting very hot,
	melt the insulation or fixture it's attached to, and possibly even
	cause a fire.

	Since people usually encounter aluminum wiring when they move
	into a house built during the 70's, we will cover basic points of
	safe aluminum wiring.  We suggest that, if you're considering purchasing
	a home with aluminum wiring, or have discovered it later, that you
	hire a licensed electrician or inspector to check over the wiring
	for the following things:

	    1) Fixtures (eg: outlets and switches) directly attached to
	       aluminum wiring should be rated for it.  The device will
	       be stamped with "Al/Cu" or "CO/ALR".  The latter supersedes
	       the former, but both are safe.   These fixtures are somewhat
	       more expensive than the ordinary ones.

	    2) Wires should be properly connected (at least 3/4 way around
	       the screw in a clockwise direction).  Connections should be
	       tight.  While repeated tightening of the screws can make the
	       problem worse, during the inspection it would pay off to snug
	       up each connection.

	       Note that aluminum wiring is still often used for the
	       main service entrance cable.  It should be inspected.

	    3) "push-in" terminals are an extreme hazard with aluminum wire.
	       Any connections using push-in terminals should be redone with
	       the proper screw connections immediately.

	    4) There should be no signs of overheating: darkened connections,
	       melted insulation, or "baked" fixtures.  Any such damage should
	       be repaired.
	    
	    5) Connections between aluminum and copper wire need to be
	       handled specially.  Current Canadian codes require that the
	       wire nut used must be specially marked for connecting
	       aluminum to copper.  The NEC requires that the wire be
	       connected together using special crimp devices, with an
	       anti-oxidant grease.  The tools and materials for the latter
	       are quite expensive - not practical to do it yourself unless
	       you can rent the tool.

	    6) Any non-rated receptacle can be connected to aluminum wiring
	       by means of a short copper "pigtail".  See (5) above.
	    
	    7) Shows reasonable workmanship: neat wiring, properly stripped
	       (not nicked) wire etc.
    
	If, when considering purchasing a home, an inspection of the wiring
	shows no problems or only one or two, we believe that you can consider
	the wiring safe.  If there are signs of problems in many places,
	we suggest you look elsewhere.  If the wrong receptacles are used,
	you can replace them with the proper type, or use pigtails - having
	this professionally done can range from $3 to $10 per receptacle/switch.
	You can do this yourself too.

Subject: I'm buying a house!  What should I do?

	Congratulations.  But...  It's generally a good idea to hire
	an inspector to look through the house for hidden gotchas.
	Not just for wiring, but plumbing and structural as well.  If an
	inspection of the wiring shows no problems or only one or two minor
	ones, we believe that you can consider the wiring safe (after any
	minor problems are fixed).  If there are signs of problems in many
	places, we suggest you look elsewhere.

	Here's some hints on what to look for:

	Obvious non-code wiring can include:

		- Zip cord wiring, either concealed or nailed to walls
		- Hot wiring on the identified (neutral) conductor without
		  proper marking.
		- Ungrounded grounding outlets (except when downstream of
		  a GFCI)
		- Splices hanging in mid-air (other than proper knob-and-tube)
		- Switched neutrals
		- Unsecured Romex swinging about like grapevines

	Certain wiring practices that are actually to code (or were at one
	time) sometimes reveal DIY wiring that may have hidden violations:

		- Switches that seem to control nothing (abandoned, perhaps
		   not properly terminated wiring)
|		- A wall switch that controls things that you think it
|		  shouldn't, for instance mysteriously removing power
|		  from lights or outlets in other rooms. 
		- Switches and outlets in bizarre locations
		- Great numbers of junction boxes without outlets or lamps
		- Junction boxes with great numbers of wires going into them
		- Wiring that passes through a closet instead of a wall or
		  ceiling
|		- Backwrapped grounding wires (ground wire wrapped around
|		  the incoming cable insulation outside the box).
|		- A breaker or fuse for outside wiring that is near the bottom
|		  of the breaker panel or in an add-on fusebox.  The outdoor
|		  wiring may have been homeowner-installed after the house was
|		  built, and was not buried deep enough or was done with the
|		  wrong kind of wire.   

Subject: What is this weird stuff?  Old style wiring
	
	In the years since Edison "invented" electricity, several different
	wiring "styles" have come and gone.  When you buy an older home you
	may encounter some of this stuff.  This section describes the old 
	methods, and some of their idiosyncrasies.

	The oldest wiring system you're likely to encounter is called
	"knob and tube" (K&T).  It is made up of individual conductors with
	a cloth insulation.  The wires are run along side structural
	members (eg: joists or studs) using ceramic stand-offs (knobs).
	Wire is run through structural members using ceramic tubes.  Connections
	were made by twisting the wire together, soldering, and wrapping
	with tape.  Since the hot and neutral were run separately,
	the wiring tends to be rather confusing.  A neutral often runs
	down the centre of each room, with "taps" off to each fixture.
	The hot wire tended to run from one fixture to the next.  In some
	cases K&T isn't colour-coded, so the neutral is often the same
	colour as the hot wires.

	You'll see K&T in homes built as late as the 40's.

	Comments on K&T:

		- the people installing K&T were pretty paranoid about
		  electricity, so the workmanship tends to be pretty good.
		- The wire, insulation and insulators tend to stand up
		  very well.  Most K&T I've seen, for example, is in
		  quite good condition.
		- No grounding.  Grounding is usually difficult to install.
		- boxes are small.  Receptacle replacement (particularly with
		  GFCI) can be difficult.  No bushing on boxes either,
		  so wiring changes need special attention to box entry.
		- Sometimes the neutral isn't balanced very well between
		  separately hot circuits, so it is sometimes possible to
		  overload the neutral without exceeding the fusing on
		  any circuit.
|		- In DC days it was common to fuse both sides, and no
|		  harm was done.  In fact, it was probably a Good Thing.
|		  The practise apparently carried over to K&T where
|		  you may find fused neutrals.  This is a very bad
|		  thing.
		- Building code does not permit insulation in walls
		  that contain K&T.
		- Connection to existing K&T from new circuits can be
		  tricky.  Consult your inspector.
		- Modern wiring practice requires considerably more
		  outlets to be installed than K&T systems did.
	
	Since K&T tends to be in pretty decent condition it generally isn't
	necessary to replace it simply because it's K&T.  What you should
	watch out for is renovations that have interfered with it and
	be cautious about circuit loading.  In many cases it's perfectly
	reasonable to leave existing K&T alone, and add new fixtures on
	new circuits using modern techniques.
	
	After K&T, they invented multi-conductor cable.  The first type
	you will see is roughly a cloth and varnish insulation.  It looks
	much like the romex cable of the last decade or two.  This stuff was
	used in the 40's and 50's.  Again, no grounding conductor.
	It was installed much like modern wiring.  Its major drawback
	is that this type of insulation embrittles.  We've seen whole
	systems where the insulation would fracture and fall off at
	a touch.  BX cable of the same vintage has similar problems.
	It is possible for the hot conductor to short out to the cable
	jacket.  Since the jacket is rusted, it no longer presents
	a low resistance return path for the current flow, but rather
	more acts like a resistance heater.  In extreme cases the
	cable jacket will become red hot without blowing the fuse or circuit
	breaker.  The best thing to do with old style BX is to replace
	it with modern cable whenever it's encountered and there's any
	hint of the sheath rusting.

	This stuff is very fragile, and becomes rather hazardous if
	the wires become bare.  This wiring should be left untouched as
	much as possible - whenever an opportunity arises, replace it.
	A simple receptacle or switch replacement can turn into a several
	hour long frustrating fight with electrical tape or heat-shrink
	tubing.

	After this wiring technique, the more modern romex was invented.
	It's almost a asphalt impregnated cloth.  Often a bit sticky.
	This stuff stands up reasonably well and doesn't present a hazard
	and is reasonably easy to work with.  It does not need to be
	replaced - it should be considered as safe as the "modern" stuff -
	thermoplastic insulation wire.  Just don't abuse it too much.

Subject: Where do I buy stuff?

	Try to find a proper electrical supply outlet near you.  Their
	prices will often be considerably better than chain hardware stores or
	DIY centres, have better quality materials, have wider variety
	including the "odd" stuff, and have people behind the counter that
	know what you're talking about.  Cultivate friendly knowledgeable
	sales people.  They'll give you much valuable information.

|Subject: Copper wire characteristics table
|
|	These are taken from the Amateur Radio Relay Handbook, 1985.
|
|	AWG  dia    circ  open   cable  ft/lb   ohms/
|	     mils   mils  air A  Amp    bare    1000'
|
|	10   101.9 10380    55    33    31.82   1.018
|	12    80.8  6530    41    23    50.59   1.619
|	14    64.1  4107    32    17    80.44   2.575
|
|	We don't show specs for 8ga or larger because they're
|	usually stranded.
|
|	Mils are .001".  "open air A" is a continuous rating for
|	a single conductor with insulation in open air.  "cable amp"
|	is for in multiple conductor cables.  Disregard the amperage
|	ratings for household use.
|
|	To calculate voltage drop, plug in the values:
|		
|		V = DIR/1000'
|	
|	Where I is the amperage, R is from the ohms/1000' column
|	above, and D is the total distance the current travels (don't
|	forget to add the length of the neutral and hot together - ie:
|	usually double cable length).  Design rules in the CEC call
|	for a maximum voltage drop of 6% (7V on 120V circuit)
-- 
Chris Lewis; clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca; Phone: Canada 613 832-0541
Psroff 3.0 info: psroff-request@ferret.ocunix.on.ca
Ferret list: ferret-request@ferret.ocunix.on.ca


From london@calypso Tue Nov  2 11:05:40 1993
Date: Tue, 2 Nov 1993 11:01:00 -0500 (EST)
From: Larry London <london@calypso>
To: Jack Mann <MANN@wittenberg.edu>
Subject: Re: futon


-----------------------------------
Accessing the rec.gardens FAQlists:
-----------------------------------

anonymous ftp:

ftp sunsite.unc.edu
cd pub/academic
cd agriculture/sustainable_agriculture
-then-
cd recgardens/ (all the faqs are here)
-or, for rec.woodworking FAQs:
cd newsgroups/rec.woodworking/faqs
-or-
cd medicine/alternative-healthcare/miscellaneous
-or-
cd environment/alternative-energy/miscellaneous

telnet:

telnet sunsite.unc.edu
Login: gopher
Enter term type: (vt100 works fine)
- sunSITE GOPHER comes up -

The Worlds of sunSITE
Sustainable Agriculture Information
Browse Sustainable Agriculture Information
sustainable_agriculture 
-then go to-
recgardens
(all the faqs are here)
-or-
newsgroups
rec.woodworking
faqs
(all the r.w. faqs are here)
- OR -

The Worlds of sunSITE
browse sunsite archives
academic
environment
alternative energy
miscellaneous

The Worlds of sunSITE
browse sunsite archives
academic
medicine
alternative healthcare
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------------------

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--=--

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