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Article: 10873 of sci.energy
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Date: 31 Dec 92 12:38 PST
Subject: Energy Ideas -- Solar Power
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ENERGY IDEAS -- SOLAR TECHNOLOGY -- Vol. 1, No. 2, August 1992

This issue of "Energy Ideas" reports on solar technology and
commercially-available, cost-effective applications.  

Although solar thermal power has been used for well over a century,
and photovoltaic cells have been in existence for over thirty
years, solar power has not gained widespread acceptance in the
United States' economy.  While a few efforts have been made at
large-scale power generation with solar power, most notably the
solar thermal plants built in California by Luz International,
today's market niches for solar power are decentralized, small-
scale applications.  Photovoltaic systems are inexpensive and
reliable sources of power for outdoor lights, water pumps,
communications equipment and a host of other outdoor applications. 
Solar thermal systems can provide heat to swimming pools and
commercial buildings for a lower cost than natural gas.  This issue
describes these pollution-free technologies and provides dozens of
case studies.

Each article can be called up by typing the <index #>.<article #>

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

1.  Introduction
2.  Photovoltaics
3.  Financing Solar Power
4.  Solar Thermal Energy
5.  Resources for Solar Power




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Article: 10874 of sci.energy
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Date: 31 Dec 92 12:38 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas -- Solar Power
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ENERGY IDEAS -- SOLAR TECHNOLOGY -- Vol. 1, No. 2, August 1992

A publication of the Center for Study of Responsive Law's
Government Purchasing Project, c. 1992

Ralph Nader, Founder Eleanor Lewis, Director, Government Purchasing
Project Jonathan Kleinman, Editor



SOLAR POWER: THE ENERGY OF THE FUTURE TODAY

Public awareness about the impact of our industrial society on
human health and the environment is growing.  The generation of
heat and electricity by burning coal at power plants and diesel
fuel in generators pollutes the atmosphere, causing the greenhouse
effect, acid rain and smog.  These effects cause droughts and
flooding, crop and property damage, and neurological and
respiratory disorders.   They also worsen the condition of older
people already ill with heart and lung disease, sometimes causing
death.  The generation of electricity by nuclear fission both
produces low-level radioactive wastes, exposing workers to
radiation, and threatens the area with a massive release of
radiation in the event of a plant failure.  Disposable batteries
contaminate groundwater with toxic metals when they are landfilled
and pollute the air when they are incinerated.  The need for heat
and electricity must be met by less harmful technologies.

The solar industry began in the United States through the space
program.  Scientists needed an electric power supply for
satellites, and developed systems which operated on sunlight. 
Stimulated by the 1973 oil embargo, continued research led to
reductions in the cost of these photovoltaic (PV) systems as well
as improvements in efficiency.  This interest in PVs also led to
the development of a solar thermal industry for the production of
both heat and electricity.  

Investment in solar power produces positive results.  According to
a 1985 "white paper" by the U.S. Department of Energy, between 1975
and 1985, the $4 billion spent on solar energy and the $2 billion
in tax incentives led to a reduction in petroleum expenditures of
$36 billion.  Investment in solar power saves money.  

Investment in solar power creates jobs.  A study by the natural
gas, energy efficiency and solar industry associations showed the
United States could create between 200,000 - 400,000 new jobs over
the next 20 years by developing those industries sufficiently to
reduce carbon dioxide emissions from current levels by 12 percent.

Solar power is a reliable source of energy, whether in the
Southwest or the Northeast.  Solar power systems received bad
publicity in the 1970s because many entrepreneurs, with less
concern for their customers than for their profits, saw an
opportunity to get rich quickly from federal tax credits. 
Frequently, these systems used poor materials, the vendors were not
knowledgeable and the products were poorly designed or did not
work. 

Today, however, properly-designed systems are plentiful and operate
reliably.  Some states, including Florida and California, have
instituted licensing requirements for solar companies, and the
Solar Energy Industry Association has established voluntary
certification of vendors.  

This issue of Energy Ideas discusses the many reliable and
cost-effective applications of solar power in many parts of the
country. The growth of this technology depends on increasing
demand, and government has the ability and the capacity to spur the
industry's growth.




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PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

Today's cost-effective photovoltaic (PV) applications are
decentralized.  They provide power at the point of application. 
This is a shift from the common notion of "plugging" into an
existing utility service, which provides power from a central
plant.  Since solar power is produced at the site, it does not
require the expensive above- or below-ground wires, substations and
generators which accompany utility service.  In some locations, PVs
provide power where utility service is inaccessible.

PV systems can also replace other decentralized power sources, such
as diesel generators and disposable batteries.  PVs eliminate the
fuel and maintenance costs of diesel generators while providing
quieter and cleaner operation.  The rechargeable batteries in a
solar system last longer, weigh less and cost less than disposable
batteries.  

When considering the full life-cycle costs of diesel, disposable
batteries or solar power in areas where an electric utility is not
currently supplying power, solar power is the most cost- effective
source of energy.

PV cells generate electricity when exposed to sunlight.  A PV cell
is a sandwich of two types of semiconductors, one made with an
excess of electrons and one made with a lack of electrons. 
Electricity can only flow in one direction across the boundary
between the two types.  When sunlight strikes the excess electrons,
they travel across the boundary and return through an external
circuit, generating a current.  This current may be used either to
power equipment or charge a battery.

PV cells are made of pure silicon, the element predominant in sand.

There are four types.  Single-cell PVs are manufactured by melting
silicon and crystallizing it into an ingot.  Cells are then made by
slicing the ingot into thin wafers.  Each cell produces about
one-half volt, but the larger the area of the cell, the greater the
amount of current it produces.  These cells lose efficiency as
their operating temperature rises.

Polycrystalline PV cells use lower-grade silicon than single-cell
PVs, producing a sheet which has a random crystal pattern.  Ribbon
silicon cells are manufactured by growing a ribbon from the silicon
and cutting it into sheets.  Amorphous silicon cells, the most
recent development, are sheets of silicon with no crystal
structure.  These cells are less costly but less efficient.

PV panels are connected arrays of single cells or large pieces of
ribbon or amorphous silicon.  Panels may be connected in series or
in parallel to produce greater voltage or current.  
Other components of a PV system depend upon the application.  If
the system exists for daytime use only, the system will include a
"power-point tracker," a device which monitors the system
performance and makes electrical adjustments to keep the system
operating as close as possible to the maximum output (i.e.,
combination of current and voltage).  Nighttime applications also
require a battery bank to store the energy and a charge controller
to prevent overcharging or excessive discharging of the batteries.

Like any piece of equipment, successful PV systems require
competent design.  Small PV packages, such as battery chargers, can
be purchased in units.  Differences in application sites require
the vendor to design larger systems, for outdoor lights, water
pumps, or other applications, around each need and site.  Each
system requires a certain amount of power.  - Each site has a
particular insolation (incident solar radiation) level as well as
an expected number of consecutive cloudy days.  The PV panels must
not be shaded nor allowed to get too hot.  The vendor should
explain the ways these factors relate to the product. 

It is important to point out that, to date, PVs are not a
cost-effective means of replacing existing utility electric
service.  The payback times for the installation of solar-powered
parking lot lights to replace a current system or installing PVs to
replace the power generation of a building would be decades, given
the current cost of these systems.  However, when con- sidering the
electricity requirements for new buildings and systems, such as the
ones described in this report, solar systems are a viable
alternative.  They should be given the strongest possible
consideration, given their environmental and economic benefits.

AND NOW, A LITTLE ILLUMINATION    

Lighting, particularly with high-efficiency lights, does not
require a substantial power supply for each individual light.  PV
panels can charge a battery all day and then the batteries will
power lights for a parking lot, a bus shelter, a billboard, or
other areas all night.  Timers and light sensors are important
components of these systems to limit the discharging time of the
battery.  Just the avoided cost of a utility extension can pay for
these systems.
CASE STUDIES

In 1987, the Florida Solar Energy Center, in cooperation with the
Florida Department of Transportation and Florida Governor's Energy
Office, initiated a project to design, install and monitor the
performance of a PV lighting system for an overhead highway sign. 
The system was installed in 1988, consisting of twenty solar panels
(totaling 1032 watts), batteries, and six 40 watt lamps.  The lamps
have a lifetime of 30,000 hours, as compared to conventional lamps
which have a shorter life.  The solar panels have impact shields to
reduce the potential for damage from gunshots or other projectiles.


Extension of service from the utility to the sign would have cost
$2/foot for an overhead line and more than $5/foot for underground
extension. Florida Power & Light would have provided an overhead
7,260 volt service at $9,000 per mile, and the distance was more
than five miles.  The capital costs for the PV system amounted to
$20,000, including the array, batteries, system controller,
mechanical components and labor.  The system has operated reliably
since 1988 with no down-time.  (Contact: Jim Dunlop, P.E., Florida 
Solar Energy Center, 300 State Road 401, Cape Canaveral, FL, 32920,
(407) 783-  0300.)

       The Pinetop, Arizona, planning department installed six
PV-powered lights in the  parking lot of the Pinetop high school. 
The lights were needed to illuminate the  entrances of the school. 
The project was funded through oil overcharge monies (see 
FINANCING, p.10).  The school system installed the system as an
educational tool for  the students.

 Each light system, including pole, panels, batteries, and charge
controller, cost $1,000.   The lights remain lit from 7:00 pm until
4:00 am.  The only maintenance requirement  has been checking the
charge levels on the batteries.  The lights have been in  operation
for four years without requiring replacement of any parts. 
(Contact: Tom  Thomas, Pinetop Town Offices, Planning and Zoning
Department, 1360 N. Niels  Hansen, Lakeside, AZ, 85929, (602)
368-8696.)

       The Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources
(ENR) has sponsored a  number of projects to demonstrate the
applicability of solar energy.  One such project,  completed
between 1985 and 1989, involved the installation of 13 PV-powered,
135 W  high-pressure sodium outdoor lights at recreational parks. 
Though the first set of light  poles cost almost $3,600 per system,
by the end of the project poles cost less than  $2,000 due to
improvements in production.  It would have cost between $7,000 - 
$8,000 per light to connect to the utility grid.  Initially the
lights were subject to  vandalism because the poles were only 14
feet high.  In addition, PV-thieves could use  the systems on their
boats.  Subsequent designs have made the poles higher and the 
batteries unusable for any application except the lights. 
Vandalism has not been  reported since these changes, and ENR has
reported the project to be extremely  successful.  (Contact: R.
Forrest Lupu, Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Re- 
sources, 325 W. Adams St., Springfield, IL, 62704, (217) 785-3484.)

       The Queens Borough Department of Parks in New York City
recently agreed to install  six solar-powered light poles at its
Ally Pond Environmental Center. People were  illegally dumping
waste on the Center's grounds, and the staff wanted to install 
security lighting.  The New York Power Authority (NYPA) donated the
equipment to  test the solar technology in a demand-side management
effort.  The six light poles cost  $18,594, and installation labor
cost $2,700.  Installation of utility-connected lights  would have
cost roughly $18,000.
 Three poles are testing low-pressure sodium lights and the other
three are testing  fluorescent fixtures.  The batteries are
gel-cell batteries and are contained in a vented  box at the top of
the 20' tall poles.  The ventilation prevents buildup of hydrogen
gas  in the battery box and the location prevents vandalism.  
These batteries usually last  three years, but due to protection
from deep discharging, they should last up to five  years.  The
system was designed to operate for five days without sunlight.  The

systems have performed without a problem. (Contact: Mark Kapner,
New York Power  Authority, 1633 Broadway Ave., New York, NY, 10019,
(212) 468-6725.)

       In 1986, Tallahassee Transit installed PV lighting systems
on 10 of 100 new bus  shelters.  The systems consist of solar
panels, lights, batteries, photocells and timers;  the photocells
activate the lights at dusk and the timers turn off the system
after the  last bus arrives.  Each system cost $1,500. Connecting
the lights to the utility would  have cost $300-$400.  The payback
time for this system is roughly 10 years.   Tallahassee Transit
commented that their lack of expertise in maintaining the systems 
proved to be a problem; the systems were occasionally hampered by
minor difficulties  and needed to be temporarily disconnected
because the staff did not know how to  repair them.  Though the PV
panels were mounted horizontally on top of the shelter,  keeping
them out of sight, to prevent vandalism, a few have been stolen. 
(Contact:  Larry Carter, Tallahassee Transit, 555 Apple Yard Drive,
Tallahassee, FL, 32304,  (904) 574-5200.)

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION VIA RADIOS AND TELEPHONES

While radio broadcasting allows people to communicate with one
another over great distances without wires, the systems themselves
still require power supplies to drive the electronics.  The use of
PVs creates wireless systems, providing both generating and
broadcasting capabili- ties in one unit.  These systems have been
used for both radio broadcasting and cellular highway emergency
phones.

CASE STUDIES

       The Illinois Department of Transportation installed AM radio
transmitters at highway  rest stations to broadcast weather
conditions for travelers.  Each cost $3,280 and has  been
operating, without difficulty, since April 1988. (Contact: ENR
Information  Clearinghouse, Illinois Department of Energy and
Natural Resources, 1-800-252-8955.)

       After a woman was attacked on a California freeway while she
walked from her  stranded car to get help, citizens demanded that
emergency phones be posted along the  freeway at no greater than
,-mile intervals.  The Service Authority for Freeway  Emergency
(SAFE) decided to install 300 phones along 1,200 miles of freeway
in Or-  ange County, California.  The project would have cost a few
million dollars had SAFE  dug a trench along the freeway for
utility and phone lines.  Instead, SAFE purchased  PV-powered
cellular phones at a cost of $3,250 per phone (a total of
$975,000).  The battery on each phone stores enough  energy to last
six days.  SAFE reports a total of 3,000 calls a week.  The phones
have  greatly improved response time to emergencies along the
freeway.  The State of  California has installed a total of 8,000
of the phones.  (Contact:  Todd Murphy, Or-  ange County
Transportation Commission, 11222 Acacia Parkway, Garden Grove, CA, 
92460, (714) 638-3868.)     Corrosion Prevention Through the Use of
Solar Power

Corrosion is caused by the exposure of metal to electrolytes or
oxygen, which take electrons and weaken the metal.  Cathodic
protection systems reverse the flow of electrons by running an
electric current from a sheet of metal close to the structure, the
anode, into the structure, which acts as the cathode.  Cathodic
protection systems are widely used by the oil industry to protect
wells and pipelines.  PV systems can also prevent the weakening of
docks, bridges and buildings.

CASE STUDY

       The U.S. Navy installed a 1440 W cathodic protection system
to prevent corrosion of  a 775 ft.-long dock at the Naval Coastal
Systems Training Center in Panama City,  Florida.  The solar panels
provide the DC current to the anode, which runs through the  water
to the dock.  The panels only operate during the day.  Using this
system elimi-  nates the need for expensive rectifiers, which
change AC current to DC current, as  well as batteries to store the
electricity from the panels.  The system has been  operating for 2+
years without any problems.  (Contact: Dick Miller, Technology 
Transfer, or Wally Muehl, Public Works Engineer, Naval Coastal
Systems, 3610 WM,  West U.S. Highway 98, Panama City, FL, 32407,
(904) 234-4742.)

A DEAD BATTERY CAN BE A THING OF THE PAST

To remain fully charged, vehicle batteries require periodic
operation of the vehicle.  Allowing the vehicle to sit for extended
periods of time, or running equipment on the battery while not
operating the vehicle, will eventually drain the battery of its
charge.  PV "trickle-chargers" can maintain a constant charge in
the battery to ensure a reliable startup.

CASE STUDIES

       The Metropolitan District Commission (MDC) in Stoneham,
Massachusetts installed  trickle-chargers on 32 intermittently-used
emergency vehicles (plows, earth-movers and  other heavy-duty
vehicles).  The PV arrays were themselves mounted onto a metal 
plate on top of the cab.  Unfortunately, this shorted the circuit
from the PV panel to  the battery by allowing the electricity to
pass into the roof of the cab rather than along  the wires into the
battery.  Although a newer design has improved upon this problem, 
the array is also covered by a glass plate, making it very fragile.

A number of the  systems broke while in use because the trucks pass
over rocky areas and under branch-  es.  

The MDC stated that the system could be very effective if a PV
charging "station"  were built and the vehicles were connected to
the station during periods of non-use.   Then the PV system would
not be damaged during operation.  The on-vehicle system  may be
more appropriate for lighter-duty vehicles or boats, where the
bilge pump may  operate and drain the battery while the boat
remains docked.  (Contact: Marty Glavin,  Metropolitan District
Commission, Central Services, 1 O'Brien Highway, Cambridge,  MA,
(617) 727-7663.)

       The Army National Guard uses vehicles intermittently
year-round.  The guard  purchased 128 battery chargers in 1988.  At
Camp Edwards, Massachusetts, rather  than being attached to the
vehicles, these chargers are attached to permanent  structures, and
the vehicles are "plugged" into the chargers when not in use.  This

avoids the potential for damage experienced by the Metropolitan
District Commission  in Massachusetts.



PHOTOVOLTAICS CAN POWER "SATELLITES" HERE ON EARTH

Photovoltaics provide the power to space satellites for data
collection and transmission.  They can also power monitors on earth
for data collection and transmission.  Either permanent or mobile
stations monitoring atmospheric conditions, radiation levels,
contaminant levels in water or other conditions for extended
periods can be powered by PVs.

CASE STUDIES

       The Weather Project Management Office at the John F. Kennedy
Space Center  installed six weather-monitoring devices within a six
mile radius of the Center.  The  devices measure lightning and
transmit the data back to a central station.  Since the  equipment,
placed atop 50' tall telephone poles, needs to be operational at
all times,  particularly during electric storms, conventional power
is not sufficiently reliable.   Photovoltaic systems were chosen
over disposable batteries due to the longer life of  the
PV-rechargeable batteries.  The transmitters require roughly 30
watts of power.   The systems have worked flawlessly for 1+ years
and have even survived two light-  ning strikes while the
transmitters did not.  

       The Illinois Department of Nuclear Safety (DNS) developed a
mobile radiation  monitoring unit.  All of the instrumentation and
radio transmitters are powered by  three 42 watt panels and a 12
volt, 210 amp-hour battery.  The cost for each of the  radiation
monitoring units was $4,378.  Three units have been purchased and
are being  used to monitor low-level radioactive waste sites.  The
systems have operated without  difficulty.  (Contact: ENR
Information Clearinghouse, Illinois Department of Energy  and
Natural Resources, 1-800-252-8955.)

A RESPONSIBLE AND RELIABLE SOURCE OF POWER FOR SAFETY

Boating

On the water, photovoltaics can provide an alternative source of
power for towers and buoys where only one has existed - disposable
batteries.  

According to a U.S. Coast Guard report, disposable batteries have
a number of unattractive attributes, including high replacement
costs, restricted availability, and increasing disposal costs
resulting from environmental hazards.  Zinc-air disposable
batteries have a highly alkaline solution (pH of 14) and also
contain mercury.  On-site disposal or deep ocean dumping disrupts
the pH of the water, making it uninhabitable for some species of
fish and releases mercury into the food chain where it poses a
human health hazard.  Thus, depleted batteries must now be returned
to shore for disposal in hazardous waste sites.

PV systems prevent these hazards while costing less.  According to
the U.S. Coast Guard, the lead-acid batteries in the PV systems can
be recycled. These batteries are also much smaller, allowing the
entire system to be transported by one person rather than an entire
team.   

CASE STUDIES

       Six towers housing flash flood warning sirens stand along
the three-mile stretch of  riverbank at Pedernales Falls State Park
50 miles west of Austin, Texas.  Installed in  1983, the PV systems
consist of a 20-watt PV panel and a storage battery.  The cost  of
each PV system was $1,000; extension of utility service to the
towers was  impossible.  According to the Texas Parks Department,
the solar system has been very  reliable.  (Contact: Bill
McDaniels, Texas Parks and Wildlife, Route 1, Box 450,  Johnson
City, TX, 78636, (512) 868-7304.)
       The U.S. Coast Guard has installed between 12,000 and 14,000
PV systems to power  navigational aides.  These replaced systems
powered by disposable batteries which  required replacement every
two years.  Replacement of these batteries cost nearly  $500/hour
at remote buoys.  The PV systems power batteries which require 
replacement every five years.  The Coast Guard is also considering
switching three  lighthouses along the East coast, damaged in a
storm last year, from diesel to PV.   (Contact: John Grasson, U.S.
Coast Guard, Civil Engineering Division, 2100 Second  Street SW,
Washington, DC, 20593, (202) 267-1892.)

       The New York Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC)
installed PV-  powered battery chargers on Lake George and Schroon
Lake to replace disposable  batteries on warning buoys.  The
previous system used 18 batteries annually at a cost  of $40 per
buoy.  Now, two six-volt PV panels and a six-volt, 120-milliamp
battery,  costing $15, have been installed and will last for five
years.  Replacing the battery  costs $8.50.  The DEC installed 120
systems on Lake George and 20 at Schroon Lake.   Photocells turn
the lights on and off.  (Contact: Dean Meyers, New York State
Depart-  ment of Environmental Conservation, RR3 Box 3489, Ft.
George Road, Lake George,  NY, 12845, (518) 668-4125.)

Traffic Control

Warning signs are a necessary part of road and highway construction
to inform drivers of construction and to redirect traffic.  These
warning signals, such as flashing arrow boards or warning strobes,
are usually powered by diesel generators or disposable batteries. 
Diesel generators emit particulates and carbon dioxide, and they
are also very noisy.  Batteries release hazardous materials into
the environment.  Solar systems eliminate pollutant emissions and
provide quieter operation.

CASE STUDIES

       The City of Austin, Texas, purchased three PV-powered
flashing arrow boards to  direct traffic around construction crews.

The older systems used diesel generators.   The PV systems have
panels placed above the arrow and a battery bank which can  operate
for 30 days without sunlight.  Each system cost $5,300.  Though the
money  saved in fuel costs would pay back the project cost in 13
years, fuel savings are not  the only savings.  Labor and
maintenance savings reduce this payback time to five  years.  The
workers prefer the PV systems because they do not need to be
refueled  and they are quieter.  (Contact: John Hoffner, City of
Austin Electricity Department,  721 Barton Springs Road, Austin,
TX, 78704, (512) 322-6284.)

       The Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT) also bought
flashing arrow boards,  but were not  happy with the results.  The
solar panels on the system could not  sufficiently charge the
batteries to keep the boards running 24 hours a day.  IDOT 
attributes the difficulties with the systems to vendor
irresponsibility.  The vendor did  not properly instruct IDOT
employees to care for the system, and the system was not  capable
of operating under the sunlight conditions experienced on the road.

The vendor bid a lower price but the  equipment was inappropriate
for the application.  IDOT suspects that the system  vendor was not
capable of assembling a high-quality system.  

 Each arrow board cost $4,600, as opposed to $2,750 for a diesel
generator and $2,800  for a primary battery system.  Next, IDOT
rented a few solar arrowboard systems  from a distributor in Texas,
using them from June to August and had no problems  with them. 
(Contact:  Brandon Long, Illinois Department of Transportation,
2300 S.  Dirkson Parkway, Springfield, IL, 62764, (217)
782-7234.)        

PHOTOVOLTAIC PUMPS: MAINTENANCE-FREE WATER AND AIR

Photovoltaic systems can provide the power required by water and
air pumps.  In remote locations, these systems will prevent long
trips for refueling diesel generators or replacing disposable
batteries.  For more central locations, PV systems will prevent the
extension of a utility line which ruins the aesthetics of a
location.

CASE STUDIES

       A drip-irrigation system powered by PVs provides water for
a belt of Russian olives,  Ponderosa pines, and Rocky Mountain
Junipers that serve as a wind shelter for cattle.   The system is
just south of Cheyenne, Wyoming, on Interstate 25.  The Wyoming 
State Highway Department installed it in April 1983 at a cost of
$12,000 and has not  had any problems with its operation. 
(Contact: Kevin Powell, Wyoming State High-  way Department, Box
1708, Cheyenne, WY, 82003-1708, (307) 777-4156.)

       The State of Utah sought to eliminate riparian water damage.

Cattle were drinking  from streams and rivers, trampling and
destroying the vegetation which prevents  erosion along the
streambeds.  In addition, their manure ran from these streams into 
major rivers and lakes, causing algal blooms which 

killed fish and prevented spawning.  Water pumps deliver drinking
water away from  the streams and encourage cattle to graze and
water in the same areas.  Utah's Depart-  ment of Natural Resources
purchased 15 PV-powered water pumps to replace diesel  pumps. 
Workers no longer drive long distances every morning to start and
refuel the  diesel systems.  The PV systems had some difficulty
with power control for positive-  displacement pumps but these were
solved. (Contact: Britt Reed, Utah Department of  Natural
Resources, Division of Energy, 3 Triad Center Suite 450, Salt Lake
City, UT,  84180, (801) 538-5428.)

       A pond aeration system at the Walter Heller Nature Center,
Highland Park, Illinois is  powered by a PV system.  The pond had
poor water quality due to problems with very  low dissolved oxygen
levels.  The PV system pumps air through the water during the 
daylight hours when dissolved oxygen is at its lowest.  The system
was installed for  $3,500.  The utility would have needed to step
down power from a main transmission  line and then feed a line
through the park to the pump, costing over $100,000.  (Con-  tact:
R. Forrest Lupu, Illinois Department of Natural Resources, 325 W.
Adams St.,  Springfield, IL, 62704, (217) 785-3484.)
PHOTOVOLTAICS PROVIDE FULL POWER TO REMOTE FACILITIES

PV systems are ideal for providing power to restroom facilities,
either in remote locations or along highways.  The power
requirements vary from tens of watts to run a small air circulation
fan to hundreds of watts for interior and exterior lights and water
pumps for sinks and showers.

Solar electric systems can also provide all the electricity needed
for facility operation.  A PV- charged battery bank can power
pumps, fans, lights, office equipment, telephones and other
appliances necessary for day-to-day operation.  Using highly
energy-efficient appliances and lights will reduce the cost of the
PV system since the power requirements will be lower. 

According to Sandia National Laboratory, well over 17,000 such
systems, many of which are for residences in out-of-the-way
locations, have been installed around the world.  These systems
generally provide less than 3.0 kilowatts of array power and may
include a diesel or propane generator for back-up power during
periods of bad weather.

CASE STUDIES

       The State of New York Department of Environmental
Conservation (DEC) wanted a  "cost-effective, low-maintenance,
quality restroom" at Prospect Mountain, an area  without plumbing,
a sewage system, or utility access.  The DEC installed a zero-dis- 
charge, composting toilet which evaporates all liquids and composts
the solids.  PVs  power pumps to circulate liquids, fans to dry the
solids, and lights.  The only  maintenance is dumping sawdust into
the system each day to facilitate composting.   The unit on
Prospect Mountain, containing eight toilets, cost $80,000. 
Bringing  electricity and plumbing to the area in any other way
would have been economically  impossible and environmentally
damaging. Single units cost $8,000 (including the  building).  The
older toilets cost $60 per week for a sewer pumper to service them,

totaling $3,000 each year.  Savings from the elimination of sewer
service pay back the  purchase of a single unit in under three
years.  (Contact: Dean Meyers, New York  State Department of
Environmental Conservation, RR3 Box 3489, Ft. George Road,  Lake
George, NY, 12845,  (518) 668-4125.)

       Another PV-powered "recycling" comfort station was installed
at the Hart Miller State  Park at Chesapeake Bay, Maryland.   The
system worked well for four years.  During  that operation period,
the Maryland Boating Administration constructed an office  building
on the island and powered the building from the local utility. 
When the  battery bank for the solar system at the comfort station
needed to be replaced, the park  service compared the cost of
replacing the batteries to connecting to the utility service  now
on the island.  Utility service proved to be far less expensive,
and the PV system  was dismantled.    Solar power could have been
maintained if the office building had  been powered by PVs as well.

       The Ranger's Residence in Wrangell St. Elias National Park
in Alaska runs on an  integrated system of diesel generators and
photovoltaics.  The residence, a 900 sq. ft.  log cabin, requires
electricity for the lights, washing machine, refrigerator and other

amenities necessary for year-round living.  The generators, PV
panels, batteries and  other electrical equipment are located in a
shed outside of the house, eliminating fire  hazards and noise
problems posed by the diesel generators.

 The eight-panel array provides all of the electricity in the
summer months and  supplements the supply in winter.  In winter the
diesel generators operate for two  hours per day both to charge the
battery bank and to heat the shed.  The shed must  remain warm to
allow the generators to start and the batteries to operate at an
efficient  temperature.  The electricity is converted from DC to AC
for operation in the house.   According to the residents, the PVs
are better than the generators because they do not  require
constant attention; the residents can leave for a few days and
return to fully-  charged batteries.  Everyone who lives in the
residence is pleased with the system.   (For non-technical
information, contact: Will Tipton, Wrangell St. Elias National
Park,  Box 29, Glennallen, AK, 99588, (907) 822-5234.) 

PHOTOVOLTAIC DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS POWER THE UTILITY GRID

Although not yet cost-effective, some utilities are installing PV
systems to provide a substantial portion of a building's energy
demand.  These demonstration projects provide lessons in
large-scale solar power generation and yield information which will
make the next demonstration project, and ultimately commercial
projects, less expensive and more reliable.  

CASE STUDIES

       Niagara-Mohawk, a utility in central New York State,
installed 15 kilowatts of power  on the roof of the Naval Building
in Latham, New York, as a demand-side  management demonstration
project.  The system has been working without any problems.  The
utility will test a battery system this Fall.  (Contact: Jim
Donogan, Niagara-  Mohawk Research and Development Department, A-2,
300 Erie Blvd. West, Syracuse,  NY, 13202, (315) 428-6970.)

       Eight kilowatts of PV power were installed at Nantucket,
Massachusetts, Elementary  School for $80,000. The PV arrays,
connected to the local utility grid, provide supple-  mentary power
to the school and have worked extremely well.  The panels cover one

portion of the roof over the cafeteria. (Contact: Virginia Faria,
Nantucket Elementary  School, 30 Surfside Road, Nantucket, MA,
02554, (508) 228-7208.)        




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From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 12:38 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas -- Solar Power
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FINANCING SOLAR ENERGY PROJECTS

The greatest obstacle to the use of solar power is the lack of
capital to purchase the systems.  As discussed in our last issue
("Opportunities Abound for Financing Lighting Retrofits"), a number
of financing options exist which can cover some or all of the
initial purchase price.  For some time, the federal government has
been the primary source of funding for solar projects.  However,
lower costs for solar systems, as well as higher environmental
standards, inefficiencies and expenses in constructing central
power plants and a growing awareness of environmental problems,
have brought about a variety of options for funding solar projects.

Federal Funding

The Department of Energy's Institutional Conservation Program (ICP)
provides 50 percent matching funds for energy conservation projects
in schools and hospitals.  Since 1979, the program has allocated
$860 million, with resulting cumulative savings of $2.8 billion. 
An area of focus for ICP is energy used to heat swimming pools,
which can be provided by solar thermal energy.

Demand-Side Management Programs

Some utilities are experimenting with solar power to manage their
electric demand.  New buildings and equipment may include
photovoltaic systems to offset the amount of electricity required
from the utility.  Utilities might begin to generate electricity
on-site, charging for the equipment, at each building rather than
provide central power.  For example, as mentioned earlier, the New
York Power Authority installed a PV-powered lighting system at the
Ally Pond Environmental Center.  In addition, Niagara-Mohawk
installed a PV system on the roof of the Naval Building in Latham,
New York.  Contact your local utility to determine whether they
will assist you in using solar energy.

Multi-State Purchasing

According to John Dunlop of the Interstate Solar Coordinating
Committee, states can significantly reduce their purchasing costs
through economies of scale.  If a few jurisdictions or states
jointly purchase the same equipment, such as flashing arrow boards,
they will obtain lower prices for high-volume orders. Oil
Overcharge Funds

Oil overcharge funds are monetary settlements returned to the
states as a result of litigation by the U.S. Department of Energy
against certain oil companies for alleged violations of price
controls in effect between 1973 and 1981.  The courts returned
these funds to the states for use in certain energy programs deemed
to provide restitution to citizens aggrieved by the overcharges. 
Some states, such as Texas, have used these funds for solar
projects.  Among the projects to receive funding were a PV lighting
system for a park, a system to provide power to a nature center,
and a facility for solar detoxification of industrial waste water.
Contact your state energy office (or secretary of state) to
determine whether these funds are available for solar power
projects.

State Energy Office Funds

Some state energy offices have provided funding for some solar
projects.  Contact your state energy office to determine whether
you may qualify for funding.

Leasing Equipment

Another possibility is leasing photovoltaic equipment.  As
mentioned on p. 8, the Illinois Department of Transportation is
renting flashing arrow boards from a company and is paying for them
with the money formerly used for operating and maintaining the
diesel equipment.

Leasing Contracts

In a leasing contract, a vendor will install solar equipment and
then charge a rate for the electricity provided, thereby repaying
their investment in the equipment.  For example, the Department of
Defense (DOD) wants to replace the diesel generators which supply
energy to island bases, such as Guam or San Clemente, with PV
systems.  The cost of their diesel generators now ranges between
20 to $1.00 per kilowatt-hour.  Solar energy contractors state
that a PV system would cost between 20 to 35 per kilowatt hour. 
DOD could have a contractor install PV systems to power their
island bases and pay the rate charged by the solar companies.  Upon
completion of the project, this yields a savings of up to 65
percent in electricity costs for the entire base.       




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Article: 10877 of sci.energy
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Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 12:38 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas -- Solar Power
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SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY SYSTEMS

Solar thermal energy uses sunlight as heat rather than converting
it directly to electricity through the use of semiconductors.  

Solar thermal energy can be used to generate electricity.  Sunlight
heats a working fluid, such as a synthetic oil.  The fluid is
circulated through a heat exchanger, where it heats water until it
boils.  The resulting steam drives steam turbines.  This produces
enough power not merely for a single appliance, but an entire
utility grid.  For example, over 400 megawatts (million watts) of
electric power is generated in California by using parabolic
mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto pipes containing a synthetic
oil; this heated oil passes through a heat exchanger which converts
water to steam.  The steam spins turbines to generate electricity.

In developing nations, solar thermal energy may provide the power
needed for basic mechanical work and appliances.  Parabolic mirrors
can collect sunlight to heat an oven or generate steam to drive a
mechanical pump.  Solar heat can also provide the input energy
necessary to drive an absorption chiller, creating a non-electric
solar refrigerator (the system works on the absorption and
evaporation of ammonia in water rather than the compression and
evaporation of a refrigerant).  The primary commercial use of solar
thermal energy is to heat water.  This heated water may then be
used directly as hot potable water for bathing, swimming, cleaning
or cooking.  The heated water may also be circulated through
radiators to provide space heating. 

Some solar thermal systems have been financed through lease
contracting.  A contractor installs and maintains a heating system.

The owner of the building pays a percentage of the cost that it
would have paid for its previous fuel supply, either natural gas,
propane, oil or another fossil fuel.  The vendor recovers its
investments through these payments, and the owner saves money by
using a less expensive system.

Most systems for municipal pool heating or commercial heating use
active solar systems.  These systems work by circulating a working
fluid (usually water, though sometimes an antifreeze in colder
climates) through solar thermal panels.  The panels used most often
for these systems consist of copper waterways attached to either
copper or aluminum fins.  Solar radiation heats the fins and the
heat conducts along them it into the copper waterways.  

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS: WHY WASTE ROOF SPACE ?

Solar heating systems for buildings can reduce the cost of fuel for
hot water for heat and washing.  The cost-effectiveness of these
systems largely depends upon the fuel being used for the current
heating system.  The systems can even cost-effectively replace
systems in buildings which use natural gas, currently an
inexpensive fuel source.  

Other factors make the benefits of solar power more attractive. 
Boilers in many buildings must run throughout the year just to heat
water for washing.  The operation of the boiler during summer
months adds heat inside the building where it is not needed.  This
heat must be cooled by the air conditioning system.  Solar heating,
which uses heat from the outside of the building, does not add to
the interior cooling load.  Thus, avoided Heating, Ventilation, and
Air Conditioning (HVAC) costs should be incorporated into the
life-cycle cost analysis when considering a solar heating system.

CASE STUDIES

       St. Rose Hospital in San Antonio, Texas, installed a 5,000
sq. ft. flat-plate solar water  heater on its roof, capable of
providing 9,000 gallons of water storage.  The hospital  paid
$49,000.  A Texas state grant (from the Alternative Energy
Demonstration Pro-  gram) paid the remaining $96,000 for the
project.  This solar heating system is a  "gravity drainback"
system; when operation stops, water drains back into a storage 
tank.  This prevents the presence of water in the collectors at
times when it could  freeze.  This also causes the system to run
under a vacuum, which prevents the water  from leaking.  The heated
water yields its heat to the potable water in a linear heat 
exchanger.  The pipes are made of copper.  

The system paid for itself in seven months partly due to avoided
fuel costs but mostly  due to avoided HVAC costs.  The system was
designed to provide 1 billion British  Thermal Units (Btu) of heat
annually.  Despite abnormally low levels of sunshine in  Texas in
the first year, the system provided 1.2 billion Btus of heat.  The
system has  operated for two years without any repairs. (Contact:
Rick Fossum, Sun Trapper Solar,  134 West Rhapsody, San Antonio,
TX, 78216, (512) 341-2001.)

       The Adams County Detention Facility in Brighton, Colorado,
had a solar thermal  heating system installed on the grounds of
their facility.  The project initially was  intended to be a
cogeneration facility, selling electricity to the local utility;
however,  certification costs assessed by the utility for the
cogeneration equipment made that  aspect of the project too
expensive.  Nonetheless, the solar system provides up to 85 
percent of the facility's heating needs.

 The project cost $290,000.  Half of that sum was for the
cogeneration equipment.   Half of the total cost was paid with oil
overcharge monies provided by the Colorado  Office of Energy
Conservation.  Private investors paid the other half.  The
detention  facility pays the contractor 70 percent of what it would
have cost to provide the heat  using natural gas.  Thus, the
facility saves 30 percent on its heating costs.  The  contractor
installed and now operates the system.  The system has worked
flawlessly.   The only maintenance has been mowing the lawn around
the system.  (Contact: Andy  Walker, Colorado Office of Energy
Conservation, 1675 Broadway #1300, Denver, CO   80202, (303)
620-4292.)      

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS FOR SWIMMING POOLS

Solar power can effectively provide the heat necessary for swimming
pools.  Many solar projects in the 1970s were pool heating
projects.  Many of these projects failed.  In the Village of Grady,
New Mexico, the staff at the community pool stopped trying to keep
a pool cover, designed to trap the heat from sunlight, from blowing
off.  Two pool heating systems in San Jose, California, needed to
be replaced after three years when the water had corroded the pipes
and caused leaks.  The solar industry has vastly improved the
design of these systems.  Recently, many private institutions have
installed solar heating systems for their pools and have been
extremely pleased with their results.

CASE STUDY

       The community of Columbia, Missouri, built their own
swimming pool.  The funding  for the pool was provided by
individuals and local businesses, and the community  volunteered
their time for the labor.  Seeking to create an
environmentally-friendly  pool, the volunteers researched solar
heating systems for the pool and applied for a  grant from the
Missouri Department of Natural Resources' Division of Energy and
the  U.S. Department of Energy.  Though the estimated cost for the
system was $16,000,  the final cost of the active solar system for
heating the 30' x 80' pool was only  $8,900.   The choice of pool
systems ultimately depended upon the ease of installation for the 
volunteers. They selected a manufacturer who provided a 10-

year warranty and also provided the most detailed instructions. 
The installation of the  heating system extended pool hours and the
pool season by a few months.  The  operation of the heating system
raised the pool temperature from 78o F to 83o F while  pumping
95,000 gallons daily.  In order to offset the energy cost
associated with the  pump for the pool's active solar system, $40
per month, the volunteers installed a  passive solar heating system
for the locker room showers which saved $60-$80 per  month in
natural gas costs.  A bubble-pack pool cover helps keep the pool
warm at  night, reducing temperature loss to only one degree, and
also prevents the escape of  the chlorine gas, saving on the amount
spent on chlorination. (Contact: David Mars,  Columbia Power &
Light, P.O. Box N, Columbia, MO, 65205, (314) 874-7307.)     

WATER DISTILLATION AND PURIFICATION ACHIEVED WITH SOLAR POWER

Solar stills create a continuous gentle steaming of water which is
then trapped and allowed to condense. The conventional method,
boiling water and condensing it, requires eight gallons of water to
provide one gallon of purified water, while solar stills provide
one gallon of purified water from just over one gallon of water. 
Solar stills provide a higher quality of water than conventional
purification Pollutant concentration can be reduced to 1 ppm while
store-bought spring water only goes below 100 ppm. 

CASE STUDIES

       San Diego State University installed three solar stills in
1965 to provide water for their  water quality and soils
laboratories.  The price of these stills is now only $400-$600.  
While reverse osmosis systems cost only half of that, the
difference in the water lost  and energy used makes the stills less
expensive.  It addition, the stills have required no  maintenance
or replacements in the 27 years that they have operated.  The
stills  provide two gallons of distilled water each day.  (Contact:
Professor Bayard Rehkopf,  Department of Civil Engineering, San
Diego State University, 5300 Campanile Drive,  San Diego, CA,
92182-0189, (619) 594-606.)

According to  McCracken  Solar Co.,  solar stills can  produce 3 
million  gallons of  pure drinking  water per  square mile  per
day.  One  solar still, 40  miles south of  San Jose,  California, 
produces 100 gallons per week of pure drinking water.  At a cost of
$8,000, the  system will pay for itself in two years by eliminating
the purchase of bottled water.   Mexico's government ordered
$50,000 worth of stills to provide 800 gal/day of fresh  drinking
water for a small village.  (Contact: Horace McCracken, 329 West
Carlos,  Alturas, CA, 96101, (916) 233-3175.)      





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Article: 10878 of sci.energy
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From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 12:42 PST
Subject: Energy Ideas - Thermal Env.
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ENERGY IDEAS -- Building Envelope (Vol. 1, No. 4, October 1992)

This issue of Energy Ideas focuses on the thermal envelope of a
building -- the windows, walls and roof.  A great deal of energy
can be transferred through a building envelope, requiring a
greater expenditure of energy to maintain comfort.  

Infiltration of hot, humid air in the summer requires additional
cooling as well as dehumidification.  Infiltration of cold air in
the winter requires additional heating.

Aside from air infiltration, conductive and radiative heat loss
and gain add to heating and cooling loads.  Proper insulation of
walls and the roof, as well as the installation of low-
conductivity windows, will minimize conductive transfer. 
Installation of radiant barriers and low-emissivity (low-E)
windows will minimize radiative transfer.  This issue will cover
these topics in greater detail.

To read a particular article, enter <index #>.<article #>

1.  Introduction
2.  Windows - minimizing conductive and radiative losses
3.  The Heat Island Effect - are our cities getting warmer ?
4.  Energy savings with Insulation
5.  Radiant Barriers - enhancing insulation performance
6.  Resources




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Article: 10879 of sci.energy
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Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 12:38 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas -- Solar Power
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RESOURCES AND REFERENCES

       PV Applications: A Guide for Decision Makers, a free
publication from the Florida  Solar Energy Center, 300 State Road
401, Cape Canaveral, Florida, 32920, (407) 783-  0300.

       Promoting Solar Electric Systems to State Agencies, John R.
Dunlop, Interstate Solar  Coordination Council, 900 American Center
Building, St. Paul, Minnesota, 55101,  (612) 296-4737.

       The Interstate Solar Coordination Council has received a
grant from the Environmental  Protection Agency to develop a Guide
to Renewable Energy Systems for state and  local purchasing agents.

Expected to be available for distribution in 1993, the guide  will
include information on PV, small wind ( <50 kw) and solar water
heating systems  for government applications.  The publication is
being developed in conjunction with  the Solar Energy Industries
Association and Sandia National Laboratories and will be  widely
distributed in each state.  More information will be published as
this project  progresses.  (If you are interested in receiving a
copy, contact Jonathan Kleinman,  Energy Ideas, P.O. Box 19367,
Washington, DC, 20036, (202) 307-8030.)

       The Photovoltaic System Design Assistance Center (PVDAC)
maintains a database  that covers stand-alone and utility-connected
photovoltaic systems.  It uses the  database, along with
evaluations of operating systems and related components, to assist 
potential users of photovoltaics.  PVDAC, Sandia National
Laboratories, Albuquerque,  New Mexico, 87185, (505) 844-6111.

       Renewable Energy: A National Directory of Resources,
Contacts and Companies is a  1992 directory of more than 1,600
citizen groups, businesses and government agencies  working on
renewable energy.  To receive a copy, send $12.50 to Public
Citizen, 215  Pennsylvania Ave SW, Washn, DC, 20003.

       The National Appropriate Technology Assistance Service
(NATAS) provides technical  assistance to help implement energy
efficiency and renewable energy products.   NATAS assists with
planning energy systems, installation methods and identification 
and comparison of designs and components. (NATAS, U.S. Department
of Energy,  P.O. Box 2525, Butte, MT, 59702, inside MT: (800)
428-1718, outside MT:(800) 428-  2525.)

       The National Renewable Energy Laboratory produces technical
publications on solar  and other renewable technologies and
provides responses to technical inquiries.  (Technical Inquiry
Service, NREL, 1617 Cole Blvd., Golden. CO, 80401, (303) 231- 
7303.) 

       The Solar Energy Industry Association (SEIA) has eight
chapters across the nation  which can provide assistance on both
the financial and technical aspects of a project.  The chapters are
located in Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Hawaii, 
Metropolitan Washington, DC, New Mexico and Oregon.  (Solar Energy
Industry  Association, 777 North Capitol Street, NE, Suite 805,
Washington, DC, 20002, (202)  408-0660.)

       Your state energy office and local utility.





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Article: 10880 of sci.energy
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Date: 31 Dec 92 12:42 PST
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ENERGY IDEAS -- Building Envelope (Vol. 1, No. 4, October 1992)


Jonathan Kleinman, Editor (202) 387-8034, ei@ipc.agc.org
Eleanor Lewis, Director, Government Purchasing Project
Ralph Nader, Founder, Center for Study of Responsive Law


SEALING THE ENVELOPE

A building shell, also known as a building "envelope," plays a
crucial role in the energy efficiency of a structure.  Many
buildings constructed in the 1950s and 1960s lose a tremendous
amount of energy through their shells.  Properly insulating,
sealing and coating a building dramatically improves its energy
performance in all seasons.

Each component of the building shell has the potential to allow
heat to leak through it.  For example, windows, while they
contribute to occupant comfort, also contribute to energy loss. 
According to the Solar Energy Industry Association (SEIA), office
buildings account for about one-third of all energy used yearly
in the United States.   These same buildings lose approximately
25 percent of their energy by unwanted gain or loss of heat or
the infiltration of unwanted air through windows.  According to
the Alliance to Save Energy, almost two-thirds of our commercial
space has no more than single-paned windows.  As a result, every
year, an amount of energy equal to the annual oil flow through
the Alaskan pipeline leaks through windows, cooling buildings in
the winter and heating them in the summer.  Also, uninsulated
ceilings, walls and roofs allow the conduction of heat and the
infiltration of unwanted hot or cold air.

Many technologies, both standard and innovative, can improve the
ability of a building to minimize heat transfer.  Insulated
windows ~ either aerogel or multiple-paned ~  can prevent the
conduction of heat through glass.  Low-emissivity (low-E) windows
and window films allow windows to reflect heat rather than
transmit it, keeping rooms cool in the summer and warm in the
winter.  Fiberglass insulation in walls, ceilings and roofs will
limit temperature gain and loss.  Buildings can use natural
sunlight to illuminate and heat workspaces.  And radiant barriers
can prevent radiative heat (the heat traveling as infrared light
which can be felt far from an object), which insulation does not
stop, from entering or leaving a building.  

New technologies can significantly improve the thermal
performance of buildings.  For example, part of Rocky Mountain
Institute operates from a 4,000-square-foot house in Old
Snowmass, Colorado.  By using super-insulation, "tight"
construction and passive solar design, the building, which
includes a large library, a computer room, 20 work stations,
seven computers, two photocopiers, a fax machine, a plotter, two
laser printers and the home of Amory and Hunter Lovins, has a
total utility bill of five dollars per month.  According to Amory
Lovins, Executive Director of Rocky Mountain Institute, on a
January day without solar heating, the building will only lose
about 0.8 degrees fahrenheit in temperature.

This issue of Energy Ideas presents available and developing
technologies which improve the thermal performance of building
envelopes.  




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Article: 10881 of sci.energy
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From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 12:42 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - Thermal Env.
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WINDOWS - A NEW LOOK AT AN OLD SCENE

Known as "glazing," glass areas on a building shell are a
necessary part of a pleasant work environment.  Offices with
windows are, almost without exception, considered to be the most
desirable.  Being able to see out and to fill an office with
natural light makes office space feel more relaxed and natural. 
Windows also provide unique opportunities to use sunlight to
reduce lighting and heating loads.  Unfortunately, most buildings
today suffer from poor glazing design, resulting in increased
heating and cooling loads.  New design techniques and glazing
products have been developed to use sunlight to increase building
energy efficiency.

Providing Light with Daylight

Smart buildings can take advantage of sunlight to reduce their
electricity consumption for lighting.  According to the U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE), more than 20 times the light required
to light building interiors is available from natural sunlight. 
Conventional window placement does not take full advantage of the
available light.  Simply placing windows in outer, or perimeter,
offices only illuminates those offices.  However, direct sunlight
which enters those windows will also increase the room
temperature.  This is helpful in winter but it adds substantially
to cooling loads in summer.  Traditionally, interior offices have
not been lit by windows.  

New glazing techniques provide lighting to all offices while
avoiding overheating from direct sunlight.  These technologies
are very cost-effective in new construction.  However, the design
techniques require integration with the building's layout and
heating, ventilating and air conditioning systems.  Consequently,
these retrofits are extremely costly.  The notable exception to
this is the replacement of inefficient windows.

Atria

One new building design, the atrium, provides a bright and
pleasant central area for office buildings and also creates a
light source for interior offices.  An atrium is an area in the
center of a building which is open from the ground floor to the
roof and is illuminated by natural light.  Interior offices with
windows facing an atrium need lower levels of electric lighting. 


Light Shelves and Clerestories

Perimeter offices may be illuminated by new window arrangements
which admit diffused and reflected light while blocking direct
light (which causes unwanted heating and glare).  Light shelves
project outward from windows in perimeter offices.  Located about
a third of the distance from the top of the windowthey reflect
light through the upper portion of the window.  A light-colored
ceiling will scatter this light, illuminating the office without
heating it.  Clerestories are skylights where the glass has been
mounted perpendicular to the roof (see photo on page two). 
Mirrors on the roof reflect light into the window and the inner
surface of the clerestory diffuses the light and directs it
downward into the building.  The clerestory may also contain
photocells to activate artificial lights when natural light falls
below a certain level.

New Developments

Two new technologies can transport light into interior office
spaces.  The first, light "pipes," reflect sunlight along their
length, similar to a optical fiber, and allow some light to
escape with each reflection.  These pipes are excellent light
sources for hallways and cubicle offices.    The second,
holographic films, refract light to change its direction.  A
holographic film on a window can make light appear as if it is
shining directly into the room regardless of the angle at which
it strikes the window.  Thus, even incidental light can be
projected 30 feet into a hallway or office space.

Controlling Heat Transfer through Windows

All objects emit light at different frequencies; the hotter the
object, the more light emitted at higher frequencies.  Relatively
cool objects, such as ourselves, sun-warmed asphalt, warm rooms
and other objects near 80 degrees fahrenheit, primarily emit
infrared radiation (IR), which we experience as heat.  All
objects seek a state of equal radiation; the net result of this
radiation is that cooler objects will get warmer.  Since glass is
transparent to IR, warm rooms will lose heat through radiation in
winter and cool rooms will absorb IR heat in summer.

IR is not the only way that glass facilitates energy transfer. 
Energy may be transferred by visible light as well.  When
sunlight shines directly into a room, all of the energy
associated with that light is absorbed by dark surfaces in a room
(carpeting, desks, chairs, etc.).  These surfaces get warm and
radiate heat in the room.  This will reduce heating loads in
winter, but it will increase cooling loads in summer.  

Lastly, windows allow heat transfer by conduction.  Glass has a
very low thermal resistance.  While a fiberglass-insulated wall
typically has an R-value (a measure of thermal resistance) of 15,
called "R-15," single-paned glass windows have R-1 or, at best,
R-2.  Thus, these windows allow warm rooms to lose heat in winter
and cool rooms to gain heat in summer.

Low-Emissivity Windows Block IR

Low-emissivity (low-E) windows minimize the entrance of infrared
radiation into a room while permitting the passage of visible
light.  Emissivity is a material property.  An object with a low
emissivity has a highly reflective surface; it neither absorbs
nor emits radiation.  A low-E window will bounce radiant heat
back to its source; warmth in a room on a cold day will be
trapped inside while warmth outside on a warm day will be kept
outside.  According to Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL), these
windows cost about $2/square foot and will pay back their
investment in two to six years, depending upon climate and energy
costs.  Low-E films may also be placed directly on existing
windows as part of an efficiency upgrade.

A new type of window, an electrochromic window, has recently been
developed which could reduce a building~s energy costs by 30 to
50 percent.  According to a September 29, 1992, article in the
New York Times ("Researchers Develop ~Smart~ Window to Cut Energy
Consumption," p. C4), the electrochromic window uses an electric
current to react to heat and light changes.  The window consists
of seven very thin layers: the two outer layers coat the window;
the next two layers function as positive and negative terminals
for current flow through the window; the next two layers contain
a metal which changes color in response to an electric current;
and the central layer contains an ion conductor.  As the two
metals change color in response to a electric current, the amount
and type of radiation which passes through the window may be
controlled.  These electrochromic windows may be placed between
two panes of glass to increase further the insulating value of
the window.  

Casting Shadows Can Also Save Energy

Light-blocking structures can prevent the entrance of direct
sunlight through windows.  Exterior blinds prevent light from
striking a building during the day (though that eliminates the
view).  According to Energy & Economics: Strategies for Office
Building Design (see Resources, page seven), these blinds add
very little to the construction cost of a building (less than 1
percent) and can reduce energy consumption by 10 percent.  At a
modeled cost of $60,000, the estimated payback time for a
60,000-square-foot building is six years.  Other less expensive
devices, such as awnings,  may be more cost-effective, depending
upon their effectiveness at blocking direct sunlight.  Exterior
window plants provide shade in summer and allow sunlight in
winter.  Interior blinds are not as effective in preventing heat
gain, since the heat has already passed through the window before
it strikes the blind, though they can prevent heat loss at night
in cold climates.

Improving Window R-Values

The thermal resistance of windows may be improved by adding panes
of glass and by filling the space between the panes with a
non-conducting gas.  Multi-paned or storm windows filled with an
inert gas (such as xenon, krypton or argon gas have an R-value (a
measurement of thermal resistance) of R-6.
Windows may also have "aerogel" placed between the individual
panes.  Aerogel is a solid and transparent material made of
nearly pure silica which contains millions of microscopic air
cavities.  These cavities increase the resistance of the
material.  Just one-half inch of aerogel between two panes of
glass can increase the R-value of a window by 500 percent, making
a window more resistant to heat conduction than a wall.

CASE STUDIES:

Mt. Airy Public Library, North Carolina
In 1982, the town commissioners of Mt. Airy, North Carolina,
sought to construct a library which would consume 70 percent less
energy than a conventional building.  By using clerestories
across the top of the library, the building provides glare-free,
diffuse light to all corners of the library without allowing the
stacks to be directly illuminated, thereby preventing damage to
the books from sunlight.  The building design also incorporates
insulation and air lock areas (see pages 5-6) and a zoned system
of heat pumps.  Electricity used for lighting accounts for only
one-eighth of the energy consumption in the building.  The
library uses 90 percent less energy than the Mt. Airy City Hall,
a building of comparable size (about 13,000 square feet).  The
construction cost was $88 per square foot as compared to $79 per
square foot for a conventional building, but was within the range
of other innovative and uniquely-designed libraries.  After
construction, the library was found to use 53 percent less energy
that was estimated for a conventional design.  (Contact: Ralph
Cooke, 838 Cross Creek Drive, Mt. Airy, NC  27030).

Abrams Elementary School in Bessemer, Alabama
In designing a replacement for a condemned elementary school, the
Board of Education in Bessemer made quick energy-saving
adjustments to conventional designs.  Since heating and lighting
account for almost 70 percent of the energy used in a typical
elementary school, the school was designed with modified
clerestories.  These shine light directly onto water-filled
plastic pipes placed in the ceilings of the school~s 20 hexagonal
teaching areas.  These tubes intercept and diffuse light.  Other
energy-saving measures led to the construction of a building
which consumes 60 percent less energy than a similar, non-solar
building.  (Contact: Stuart Wells, Passive Solar  Industries
Council, 1511 K Street NW, Suite 600, Washington, DC  20005,
(202) 371-0537.)
Elementary Schools in Laveen, Arizona
As a part of a major energy retrofit, in 1991, Laveen replaced
inefficient, leaking aluminum windows in one school with a glass
block window wall system.  The project also added insulation to
the roofs and walls of the building.  The school superintendent
reported that the improvements in the quality of lighting, air
distribution, air temperature and noise level in buildings has
improved the learning environment.  The projects were repeated in
two additional buildings in the summer of 1992.  (Contact: Dennis
Umber and Associates, 5535 Osborn Road, Suite 203, Scottsdale, AZ 
85251 (602) 423-8474.)

Office Complex in Southfield, Michigan
In 1992, The Northland Towers Office Complex added a blue low-E
film to the outside of 39,000 square feet of window space on
their two towers.  The previous film on their glass, which
accounts for 90 percent of the building~s exterior, had begun to
peel.  The project cost $69,960.  While reflective film lowers
the cooling load in summer, it increases the heating load in the
winter because the reflective film prevents sunlight from
entering and warming rooms.  The net annual savings are 
estimated at $22,571, resulting in a payback of 2.8 years. 
(Contact: Chris Pedigo, Executive Vice-President, Northland
Towers Management, 15565 Northland Drive, Suite 510 West,
Southfield, MI  48075, (313) 569-3180.)




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Article: 10882 of sci.energy
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From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 12:42 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - Thermal Env.
Sender: Notesfile to Usenet Gateway <notes@igc.apc.org>
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THE HEAT ISLAND EFFECT

Light-colored surfaces mitigate what is known as the "heat
island" effect.  According to a September 1990 article in
Scientific American, downtown temperatures in Los Angeles are
over five degrees fahrenheit warmer than they were in 1940, and
they are increasing at a rate of nearly one degree every 10
years.  

This is attributable to the increased use of asphalt across the
city.  Asphalt is dark and absorbs heat very effectively.  The
use of asphalt also displaces trees which cool the air by
evapotranspiration.  The net cost in Los Angeles from the effect
is estimated to be $100,000 annually in additional cooling costs. 
Lightening asphalt and roof surfaces and replanting trees  in
urban areas can reduce the amount of heat which a city will
absorb.

Light-colored surfaces also improve the energy efficiency of
individual buildings.  According to the Solar Energy Corporation
of New Jersey, a white roof will stay 30 degrees cooler on a
sunny day than a dark roof.  The cooler roof temperature results
in a smaller cooling load in the upper floors of a building. 
However, white surfaces radiate as effectively as a dark surface
and will radiate heat into a building.  Low-emissivity surfaces,
such as radiant barriers (see page six), are more effective at
reflecting the heat from sunlight.

CASE STUDY:

Light-Colored Roofing in Mesa, Arizona
The City of Mesa replaced or re-coated the roofs of four
buildings with light-colored insulation board and spray styrofoam
as part of an energy retrofit for each building.  Prior to the
retrofit, each of the buildings had a dark green or black roof
and no insulation.  The heating and cooling load attributed to
the roof is expected to be reduced by 20 to 30 percent.   The
estimated payback for the project is quite long, about 20 years. 
However, this project was completed as part of a major retrofit,
including energy efficient lighting and heating, ventilating and
air conditioning (HVAC) improvements, which had much shorter
paybacks.  By performing all energy improvements at the same
time, the city of Mesa included a project which was not highly
cost-effective but still energy-efficient.  (Contact: Larry Kell,
City of Mesa, Box 1466, Mesa, AZ  85211-1466, (602) 644-3287).




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Article: 10883 of sci.energy
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From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 13:54 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - HVAC-2
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NEW TRICKS FOR AN OLD SYSTEM

Many inefficient cooling systems could be improved by proper
maintenance and design. The efficiency and performance of a
heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) system depends
upon the performance and interaction of each component. The
performance of an efficient HVAC system often degrades when scale
accumulates on heat exchanger surfaces, dirt causes bearings on
motors to stick or changes in the system load increases the
pressure within piping. These problems can be corrected without
the purchase of new equipment. 

Types of Cooling Systems

Because of the high heat capacity of water, water-cooled systems
are most commonly used for large-scale applications, i.e. large
buildings and district cooling systems. In these systems, a
cooling unit chills water to about 45o F. The cooling system then
circulates this water throughout a building or a district to
different air-handling systems. These systems take air from
conditioned space and pass it through a heat exchanger, where the
air loses heat to the cool water. The water is then returned to
the central chiller where it is again cooled. Smaller buildings
frequently use individual window air conditioning units.

Improved Efficiency With Proper Maintenance

In an article in the November, 1992 Energy User News ("Georgia
Tech Engineer Outlines HVAC Checklist," p. 4), Doug Moore, the
senior research engineer at Georgia Tech Research Institute,
outlined the steps necessary to maintain the efficiency of HVAC
equipment. For cooling systems, these steps include:

*    Checking the condition and tension of fan belts. A slipping
belt reduces air flow, can cause coil freeze-up and can result in
loss of cooling capacity.

*    Inspecting fan wheels for dirt or obstructions.

*    Cleaning the cooling and heating coils with factory-approved
coil cleaner.

*    Cleaning and inspecting condensate pans and drain piping.

*    Cleaning or replacing air filters (if you have standard
filters, replace them with high efficiency and high capacity
pleated filters).

*    Checking the operation of outside air and relief dampers,
and lubricating as required.

*    Draining and cleaning the cooling tower basin.

*    Cleaning the water distribution basin and clearing nozzles
of obstructions.

*    Checking the water treatment system and chemical level and
adjusting the bleed rate.

*    Checking the fan belts and gear boxes; adjusting or
lubricating them as required.

*    Cleaning pump strainers and verifying proper water flow
rates.

Economizer Installation

The use of equipment such as chillers can be minimized by
providing supplemental cooling with cold air, water or natural
ice during the fall and spring. When the outside air temperature
is sufficiently low and cooling is necessary to offset heat
generated by people, office equipment and lights, air can be
brought in from the outside. Ambient air can "precool" cooling
water, resulting in a lower cooling load for the chillers. Thus,
a smaller chiller can be used during this time of year, or a
chiller connected to an adjustable speed drive (see p. 9) can be
used to match the reduced load. Depending on the location, cool
water or even ice from nearby rivers can be brought to a facility
and used to precool or even completely chill water.

There are two types of economizer controls: dry-bulb control and
enthalpy control. The dry-bulb temperature is perceived
temperature without considering the latent heat of the water
vapor in the air. Dry-bulb control systems compare the outdoor to
indoor dry-bulb temperatures and use precooling when the outdoor
dry-bulb temperature is lower than the indoor dry-bulb
temperature. Enthalpy control systems use an economizer only when
the combined sensible and latent energy level (enthalpy) of
outdoor air is lower than the indoor air.

CASE STUDY:

Economizers at High School Campus
The Phoenix, Arizona Union High School District #210 installed
economizers and control systems in its buildings to permit the
use of outside air for cooling. When the outdoor air temperature
is lower than that of the inside air, the air handling system
precools the indoor air by passing both through a heat exchanger. 
(Contact: Kenneth E. Wissinger, Assistant to the Superintendent
for Business and Operations, Phoenix Union High School District
#210, 4502 North Central Avenue, Phoenix, AZ 85012, (602)
271-3301.)

Redesigning the Cooling System

When adding or removing a building or area from a district or
building cooling system, it is important to rescale the cooling
system accordingly. Off-line chillers and cooling towers should
be isolated, and the chilled and condenser water flow rates
correspondingly reduced. Unnecessary pumps should be shut off.
Since many existing cooling systems are oversized, a series of
small pumps or an adjustable speed pump should be installed to
prevent overuse.

CASE STUDIES:

District Cooling Resizing at University
The district cooling system at Yale University in New Haven,
Connecticut was wasting energy to overcome bottlenecks in its
piping system. Undersized pipes and an inefficient chilled water
distribution system increased the pumping pressure in the system
and introduced greater friction losses. The chillers were
modified from two-pass to single-pass units and the piping was
changed throughout the system to reduce friction losses. The
university spent $980,000 to redesign its hydronic loop. The new
design has increased the chiller plant~s output capacity by 2,500
tons and cut fuel bills by $309,000 during a five-month period in
1991, yielding an estimated 1.5 year payback period. In addition,
the increase in the efficiency of the system avoided the
expenditure of $2.5 million for a new chiller. (Contact: Mike
Kieley, Chief Engineer, Sterling Power Plant, 309 Congress
Avenue, New Haven, CT 06510, (203) 785-4414).

Pumping Reduction at Airport
The City of Phoenix, Arizona reduced the number of pumps required
to circulate chilled water at the Central Plant for Airport
Terminal 4 by reducing the pressure differential of the secondary
loop from 12 to 5 pounds per square inch (psi). At 12 psi and a
10o F difference between the supply and return water, three 150
horsepower (hp) pumps are required. Lowering the pressure to 5
psi enables one 150 hp adjustable speed drive pump operating at
80 percent capacity to maintain the same 10o F difference.
Savings are estimated at 6,000 kWh and $420 per day. (Contact:
Dimitrios Laloudakis, Energy Conservation Manager, 2631 S. 22nd
Avenue, Phoenix, AZ 85009, (602) 261-8813.)




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Article: 10884 of sci.energy
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From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 13:54 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - HVAC-2
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SAVING MONEY BY SWITCHING TO GAS-DRIVEN ENGINES


Some facilities have managed to lower their energy costs by
switching from an electric to a natural gas-powered vapor
compression air chiller. Utilities have begun offering
Demand-Side Management rebates to facilities that install
gas-driven engines. While electric engines have a higher
coefficient of performance (the ratio of the cooling output to
the energy input), the inefficiency of electricity generation and
transmission makes the overall efficiency of gas and electric
engines nearly equal. 

CASE STUDY:

Chiller Installation at University
The State University of New York at Buffalo sought to air
condition portions of an old building which houses the chemistry
department. The three-floor, 220,000-square-foot building has
classrooms on the first floor and offices and laboratories, which
need air conditioning, on the second and third floors. The
facility manager estimated that the building required about 300
to 400 tons of cooling. The building did not have the existing
service to supply power to an electric chiller. Supplying that
service would have cost $210,000.

Instead, a gas-engine-powered, horizontal screw chiller was
installed in 1989. This chiller was chosen because it is easy to
maintain and because of the differences in fuel prices. Taking
efficiencies into account, electricity would cost $2.10 per therm
(100,000 British thermal units) while natural gas only cost 40
cents per therm. The cost of the gas-powered chiller was
$180,000, but with a gas utility rebate of $70,000, the chiller
cost only $30,000 more than an electric chiller. The annual
savings have been nearly $10,000. The chiller availability has
been almost 100 percent; the only shut-down occurred when the
lubricating pump needed to be repaired. Aside from the economic
benefits, the facility manager stressed the ease of maintenance
and the compact size of the chiller (4' x 12' x 7') which allowed
it to fit easily in the basement of the building. (Contact: Fred
Smeader, University Facility Engineer, SUNY Buffalo, 115 John
Beane Center, Buffalo, NY 14260, (716) 645-2612.)





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Article: 10885 of sci.energy
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From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 13:54 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - HVAC-2
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HOW TO COOL WITH HEAT: ABSORPTION COOLING

Absorption cooling systems are as effective as conventional vapor
compression cooling systems, but require heat rather than
electricity. As a result, these systems can use a variety of
energy sources, including natural gas combustion, waste heat from
electricity generation or solar thermal power. More importantly,
these systems commonly use either ammonia or water as
refrigerants, neither of which contributes to the depletion of
the ozone layer or to global warming.

How They Work

Like vapor compression chillers (see "Electric Heat Pumps
Revisited," Energy Ideas, November, 1992, p. 6), absorption
chillers circulate a working fluid (the refrigerant) through an
expansion and condensation cycle. Heat from air in a building
causes a refrigerant to boil (see diagram below). Rather than
being compressed into a hot liquid, the gaseous refrigerant is
moved to a chamber where it is absorbed by another liquid
substance. The refrigerant-absorbent mixture is heated in a
boiler to separate the two fluids. Each is sent to its own
condensing chamber. The absorbent cools and condenses and is
returned to absorb more refrigerant. The refrigerant cools and
condenses and is returned to the evaporator where it will pick up
more heat from the indoor air. While earlier systems used ammonia
as the refrigerant and water as the absorbent, newer systems use
water as the refrigerant and a non-toxic lithium bromide salt
solution as the absorbent. The lithium bromide cycle occurs in a
vacuum, giving water a very low boiling temperature. 

Absorption cooling offers a few advantages over vapor-compression
systems. The first and foremost is the absence of a toxic and
ozone-depleting refrigerant. Since absorption cooling only
requires heat and small pumps for circulation of the water and
salt solution and the evacuation of the system, an absorption
chiller has very few moving parts. Consequently, these systems
are very reliable and easy to maintain. In addition, the systems
provide quiet, vibration-free operation. The greatest advantage
is the low cost of natural gas as compared to electricity costs
for large chillers (see life-cycle cost analysis, p. 7).

Site Efficiency and Source Efficiency

The greatest disadvantage of an absorption cooling system is its
low coefficient of performance (COP). The COP is the ratio of the
amount of energy that goes into a chiller to the amount of energy
removed by the chiller. Typically, an absorption chiller has a
site COP of 1; for every British thermal unit (Btu) of natural
gas burned on site, one Btu of energy is removed from the air.
Newer models are expected to attain a site COP of 1.5. Electric
vapor-compression chillers of intermediate size have a site COP
of 5, making them far more efficient. Since the generation of
electricity by fossil fuel combustion is only about 35 percent
efficient, the source, or overall, COP of an electric chiller is
only 1.75.

Cooling by Cogeneration

According to the Institute for Energy and Environmental Research
(IEER), of Takoma Park, Maryland, an absorption chiller-heater
which also produces electricity is the most efficient cooling and
heating system. The cogeneration of heat and electricity vastly
improves the energy efficiency of any combustion system by using
heat which would normally escape into the environment (see
"Cogeneration: Increased Efficiency without Increased Fuel,"
Energy Ideas, November, 1992, p. 4). In addition, the electricity
produced by a cogenerating chiller-heater could be sold to a
local electric utility pursuant to the Public Utility Regulatory
Policy Act (PURPA).

Developing such cogeneration units also contributes to smarter
energy planning for utilities. By installing cogeneration systems
to provide all energy - heating, cooling and electricity - to new
facilities, power generation increases only as demand increases.
This provides greater flexibility for electric utilities, which
usually forecast the long-term regional electricity demand and
build large central power stations, which may or may not be
needed in the future. In addition, the use of on-site natural gas
establishes a system which can be compatible with solar-produced
hydrogen fuel or biogas.

CASE STUDIES:

Absorption Chillers at Audubon Headquarters
When retrofitting their national headquarters in New York City,
the National Audubon Society installed rooftop absorption
chillers because these systems do not use CFCs, whereas
compression coolers do. The installation of a 180 ton natural
gas-fired chiller received a $72,000 rebate from the local
electric utility based on a $400 per ton rebate. (Contact: Dr.
Jan Beuea, Vice-President for Science, National Audubon Society,
700 Broadway, New York City, NY 10003, (212) 979-3000.)

Absorption Chiller at Junior High School
In 1987, the Northbrook, Illinois Junior High School installed a
200-ton absorption chiller-heater to provide air conditioning to
the 150,000-square-foot building. The school needed to maintain
its backup heating capability in addition to providing the air
conditioning. While an electric vapor compression chiller would
have required the expansion of the boiler room, the absorption
chiller-heater simply replaced one of the boilers and can provide
the necessary backup heat at any time. Although the
chiller-heater cost slightly more than an electric chiller, the
additional cost will be paid back. Natural gas is available at a
direct purchase price during the summer, only 17 cents per therm.
Electricity, at 7 cents per kilowatt hour, costs about $2.05 per
therm. 

While the system has operated reliably since its installation,
the building manager stressed the importance of the quality of
service received from the installer and the service company. They
took the time to fully train the building staff in the complete
operation of the chiller-heater and are readily available to
service the system. In addition, the school district was
impressed by the lack of ozone-depleting and toxic refrigerants
in the system. The building manager strongly suggests considering
these systems to anyone who is refitting a building. (Contact:
Tim Melting, Director of Buildings and Grounds, Northbrook School
District, 1475 Maple Avenue, Northbrook, IL 60062, (708)
498-7900.)




From samba!concert!gatech!destroyer!gumby!wupost!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!saimiri.primate.wisc.edu!ames!sgi!cdp!ei Fri Jan  1 22:34:00 EST 1993
Article: 10886 of sci.energy
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From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 13:54 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - HVAC-2
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SELECTING A SAFE REFRIGERANT FOR COMPRESSION SYSTEMS

The combination of environmental and legislative pressures is
making the switch from chlorine- and bromine-containing
refrigerants to alternatives a necessity. By purchasing
alternatives to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), federal, state and local
governments can use taxpayer funds to benefit the public by
accelerating the introduction of alternatives into the market, a
crucial step to slowing and stopping the rate of depletion of the
ozone layer.

Benefits of CFCs and HCFCs Overstated

The supposed benefits of both CFCs and HCFCs have recently been
called into question. While CFCs have been known as effective
refrigerants, freon and other CFCs can cause fatalities at high
exposures. At medium levels of exposure, CFCs can cause lung
infections, kidney damage and tumors. At low exposures, they can
cause forgetfulness and dizziness. Manufacturers hid information
revealing their toxicity. As reported in the January-February,
1991 San Jose, California, Metro ("Breathing Uneasy," p. 12), "Du
Pont Co.~s own experiments in the early ~80s on CFC-113 [freon]
called attention to the danger but Du Pont obscured the ...
evidence, burying it at the back of a 1,700 page report." 


The reported success of HCFCs at reducing ozone depletion has
also been overstated. According to an article in the February 23,
1992 Washington Post ("Study Finds CFC Alternatives More Damaging
Than Believed"), the lower ozone-depleting potential of HCFCs was
incorrectly calculated. As the article states, "HCFCs are 95
percent less ozone-depleting than the original compounds only if
the analysis assumes that the alternatives release chlorine at
the same slow rate as CFCs. In fact ... they free chlorine much
faster; and because the coming years are critical for arresting
the chlorine buildup, the contributions of HCFCs will be ~far
higher~ than indicated by the earlier analysis of their
destructive power." HCFC-22 is only 75 percent less
ozone-depleting than CFCs, as opposed to the 95 percent figure
originally determined.

Legislation in Effect

In accordance with federal law, U.S. manufacturers will stop
making CFCs as of December 31, 1995. This deadline, established
by President Bush under the authority of the Clean Air Act
Amendments (CAA) of 1990, is earlier than the January 1, 2000
deadline established by the Montreal Protocol, an international
agreement. In addition, while the Montreal Protocol only calls
for voluntary phaseout of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), the
CAA calls for a mandatory total phaseout by 2030. 

According to an article in the March, 1992 Energy User News
("Users Worry About Price, Supply with Faster CFC Phaseout," p.
1), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is seeking to
halt production of three HCFCs by the year 2005 in new equipment
and by 2015 in existing equipment. According to the article,
these three refrigerants have been targeted because of their
"high ozone depletion potentials relative to such other HCFCs as
[HCFC-]123."

The EPA also seeks to penalize the release of CFCs into the
atmosphere by systems which currently use them. Pursuant to
Section 608 of the CAA, the EPA has proposed that the release of
refrigerant while repairing an air conditioning system is subject
to a $25,000 fine. In addition, the EPA is calling for voluntary
certification of air conditioning service personnel.

Alternatives Have Been Developed

According to a 1992 report by the Institute for Energy and
Environmental Research (IEER), of Takoma Park, Maryland, certain
refrigerants and other technologies can successfully eliminate
the ozone depletion threat posed by air conditioning and
refrigeration systems. Chief among these are HFCs.

HFCs are close in their thermodynamic properties to CFC-11 and
CFC-12, but contain no chlorine or bromine. IEER reports that
HFC-134a is the "most promising candidate in the short-term for
use in existing vapor-compression systems using CFC-12 and in
stationary and mobile air-conditioning systems." HFC-134a is
non-toxic and non-flammable and performs about as well as CFC-12.
Research on compressor designs, lubricants and refrigeration have
indicated that HFC-134a can perform as well as, if not better
than, CFC-12. HFC-134a can be used in place of CFC-12 or R-500 in
water chillers, both as a "drop-in" substitute in existing
systems and in new designs.

As reported by Energy User News, manufacturers have not proposed
HFC-134a as a substitute, but rather focused on mixtures of other
HFCs, particularly HFC-152a, HFC-125 and HFC-32. IEER reports
that HFC-152a performs better than both HFC-134a and CFC-12 in
terms of energy efficiency and the necessary lubricants are not
as expensive. HFC-152a is highly flammable, though IEER reports
that its application in smaller systems should be entirely safe.
The HFCs should ultimately prove to be the safe alternatives to
CFCs.

CASE STUDY:

Recycling Refrigerants in School District
In accordance with federal law, Page, Arizona Unified School
District #8 has eliminated the venting of CFC~s into the
atmosphere by using a refrigerant recovery recharge unit. This
lightweight unit (weighing 27 pounds) may be carried to the
rooftop units and evacuates the refrigerant, storing it in a
container. A separate unit purifies the refrigerant prior to
replacing it in the air conditioner. The evacuator and purifier
cost a total of $3,100 and have saved $1,600 annually by
eliminating the purchase of additional refrigerant. The
maintenance staff reports that the unit has been extremely
reliable. While the school board initially considered purchasing
this system to save money, the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments,
which may establish a $25,000 fine for releases of CFCs, made it
a priority. (Contact: Jack Gritton, Maintenance/Refrigeration,
Page Unified School District #8, Box 1927, Page, AZ 86040,
(602)645-8801.)




From samba!concert!gatech!destroyer!gumby!wupost!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!saimiri.primate.wisc.edu!ames!sgi!cdp!ei Fri Jan  1 22:34:10 EST 1993
Article: 10887 of sci.energy
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From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 13:54 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - HVAC-2
Sender: Notesfile to Usenet Gateway <notes@igc.apc.org>
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Lines: 76



LIFE-CYCLE COST ANALYSIS

While the calculation of the life-cycle cost of an electric
vapor-compression or a natural gas absorption air conditioning
system is highly site-specific, the following generalized
calculation demonstrates the issues surrounding a selection. As
shown below, economics weigh heavily against absorption systems.
Even considering a very low purchase price for natural gas, the
payback period for an absorption chiller is over 15 years.
However, a Demand-Side Management rebate, such as the $70,000
rebate given to the State University of New York at Buffalo for
300 tons of gas cooling (see p. 5), can drastically reduce this
payback period; that rebate cuts the payback perit over
one year. 

This calculation probably underestimates the cost of electricity
for a chiller. Many electric utilities charge a high rate for
electricity to facilities with a high demand, especially during
the day when demand is highest.

Life-cycle cost analysis should, where possible, include
so-called "external"costs, including environmental and social
costs. A few states have estimated the cost of reducing carbon
dioxide and sulfur dioxide emissions and have used these figures
as the costs of pollution in least-cost planning for utilities. 

In this calculation, the low coeffecient of performance (COP) of
the absorption chiller as compared to the electric chiller
minimizes the difference between burning natural gas and burning
coal to generate electricity. Including the reduction of
pollution does not enhance the economic attractiveness of an
absorption cooler. Other factors which do not have estimated
costs, such as the elimination of the use of CFCs and HCFCs,
would give absorption cooling a stronger advantage.

                                        Electric       Nat. Gas
Size (tons) [1]                         300            300
Purchase Price [2]                      $75,000        $150,000
Site COP [2]2                           5              1
Heat Removed Annually (therms) [3]      20,000         20,000
Energy Consumed Annually                4,000          20,000
  (Heat Removed/COP (therms))
Cost of Energy ($/therm) [4]            2.05           0.17
Annual Energy Cost                      $8,200         $3,400
  (Consumption * Cost)
20-Yr. Economic LCC                     $239,000       $218,000

Source Energy Consumption (therm) [5]   11,425         20,000
Annual CO2 Emissions [6]                120            116
Annual SO2 Emissions [7]                1,400          0
Cost of CO2 ($/ton) [8]                 23             23
Cost of SO2 ($/ton) [9]                 1,500          1,500
Total Annual Pollution Cost             $3,180         $2,668

Total 20-Year LCC                       $315,200       $271,360

1 - Same size as gas-engine-driven chiller described on p. 5.
2 - Mike Byars, Trane Company
3 - Estimated from performance data for chiller described on p.5.
4 - Electric price = average listed in Energy User News
  Gas price = district purchase price as described on p. 6.
5 - Assuming 35 percent efficiency for electricity generation and
transmission; site and source energy for natural gas are equal.
6 - According to U.S. EPA, coal combustion emits about 210 lbs.
CO2 per MMBtu and natural gas combustion emits about 116 lbs. CO2
per MMBtu.
7 - According to U.S. EPA, coal combustion emits about 1.2 lbs.
SO2 per MMBtu and natural gas does not emit sulfur dioxide.
8 - Cost as determined for State of Massachusetts by Tellus
Institute.
9 - Cost as determined for State of Massachusetts by Tellus
Institute.




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Article: 10888 of sci.energy
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From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 12:43 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - Thermal Env.
Sender: Notesfile to Usenet Gateway <notes@igc.apc.org>
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PROVIDE CLOTHING FOR YOUR BUILDING -- INSULATE IT

Proper insulation in a building is important because it prevents
the transfer of heat between a building and the external
environment, as well as between sections within a building. 
Attempting to control the temperatures in different zones of a
building will not succeed if heat can travel freely throughout
the building.  

All Parts of a Building Should Be Insulated

Walls, ceilings and roofs should all be insulated.  The payback
time for insulation depends upon the amount of insulation
currently in place.  Buildings which have no insulation can
expect a project to pay back in energy savings in a few years. 
Wall insulation has the longest payback because of the cost of
repainting.  

Floors should be insulated as well.  Slab-on-grade floors should
be insulated around the perimeter with rigid board or foam.  The
board or foam should be placed vertically along the outside edge
of the floor and should extend down at least two feet below the
surface of the floor.
Insulation of structural members, the steel beams which support
the building, is also important.   According to Energy &
Economics, uninsulated structural members can reduce the
performance of roof and wall insulation by up to 20 percent. 
Improper insulation also causes water to condense on cool beams,
causing a structure to deteriorate.

A New Development: Gas-Filled Panels

A new type of insulation developed for insulating roofs and walls
is the gas-filled panel (GFP).  GFPs consist of low-emissivity
multilayer baffles enveloped by a sealed barrier and filled with
a low conductivity gas (such as argon or krypton) or air.  These
panels are twice as effective as fiberglass insulation; they
provide R-7.5 per inch thickness, as opposed to R-3 to R-4 per
inch thickness for fiberglass.  In addition, GFPs can replace
CFC-blown foams.  Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories has almost
completed a manufacturing prototype of a GFP building insulator.
Insulation Does Not Cause Poor Air Quality

While insulation definitely improves the thermal performance of a
building, many believe that over-insulating prohibits adequate
ventilation in buildings.  Alarm over indoor air pollutants,
particularly radon, has caused people to believe that leaky
buildings provide more fresh air and improve indoor air quality. 


Hunter Lovins of the Rocky Mountain Institute strongly disagrees. 
"The answer to indoor air pollution," she stated in an
Architecture article, "including radon, is stopping the poisons~
entry, or, failing that, then ensuring a constant supply of fresh
air prewarmed through heat exchangers.  It is a myth that old
leaky buildings are more healthful than tight superinsulated
buildings.  Research at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory shows that
you can get much higher concentrations of radon in leaky
buildings than will ever occur in tight buildings with constant,
controlled ventilation.  With heat exchangers, you get
energy-efficient control over the ventilation rates and flow."
("The Performance of Some 1970s Energy Savers," Architecture,
March 1989).  (Contact: Rocky Mountain Institute, 1739 Snowmass
Creek Road, Snowmass, CO  81654, (303) 927-3851.)

Choosing  a "Green" Insulation

Many insulating materials are made using dangerous chemicals. 
Polystyrene, itself a known carcinogen, is usually blown into an
insulating foam with chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) or
hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs), both of which deplete atmospheric
ozone and contribute to the growing ozone hole.  Fiberglass must
be handled carefully because splinters of the glass can enter the
lungs.  Cellulose is a safer alternative, but must be treated
with flame retardants.

CASE STUDIES:

Insulating the High School in Yuma, Arizona
The Yuma Union High School District installed R-30 batt
insulation above new suspended ceilings in classrooms at Kofa
High School and R-11 batt insulation in the walls.  Prior to the
installation, the high school had only R-2.5 insulation.  The
building has 360 tons of chiller capacity.  To meet its daytime
cooling demand, the facility manager arranged to make ice at
night to lower the peak electric demand during the day.
Unfortunately, the cooling load had been so large the chillers
had to operate both day and night.  The insulation should allow
the chillers to idle during the day, lowering the peak demand of
the school.  This would entitle the school to a lower electricity
rate with the utility, increasing energy savings.  An additional
benefit is that the chiller plant runs better and will last
longer.  The project cost $55,000 and will eliminate 50 tons of
cooling load in the building.  The energy savings alone, not
including a shift to the lower electric rate, should pay back the
investment in just under three years.  (Contact: Richard
Jernigan, Yuma Union High School District, 472 South 9th Ave.,
Yuma, AZ  85364, (602) 783-0905.)

National Audubon Society Headquarters
As a part of an energy retrofit at its national headquarters in
New York City, the National Audubon Society insulated its walls
with "Air Krete" insulation.  This insulation, which consists of
air bubbles trapped in a magnesium oxide cement mixture, improved
the R-value of the walls to between R-12 and R-16 (up to three
times the New York Code requirement), depending on the thickness
of the insulation.  This insulation is non-toxic and does not use
CFCs in its manufacture.  (Contact: Kirstin Childes, Croxton
Collaborative Architects, 1122 Madison Avenue, New York City, NY 
10028, (212) 794-2285.)




From samba!concert!gatech!destroyer!gumby!wupost!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!saimiri.primate.wisc.edu!ames!sgi!cdp!ei Fri Jan  1 22:34:26 EST 1993
Article: 10889 of sci.energy
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From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 12:43 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - Thermal Env.
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RADIANT BARRIERS - ENHANCING INSULATION PERFORMANCE

Insulation is capable of stopping the conduction of heat but it
cannot prevent heat transfer by radiation.  When sunlight strikes
the roof of a building it can increase the temperature of the
roof up to 190 degrees fahrenheit on a black roof or 160 degrees
on a white roof.  Both the outer and inner surface of the roof
are at this temperature.  The placement of insulation beneath the
roof prevents the conduction of heat from the roof into the
building.  However, since insulation has a non-reflective
surface, it will absorb heat radiated by the roof until it
reaches the same temperature as the roof.  The hot insulation
then warms the air surrounding it.  Rather than being a barrier,
the insulation has become a heat source.

Radiant Barriers Block Radiant Heat

Radiant barriers prevent the roof~s radiant heat from reaching
below the building insulation.  A radiant barrier is essentially
a low-emissivity (low-E) surface.  Since low-E surfaces neither
absorb nor emit heat radiation very effectively,  radiant
barriers reflect infrared radiation.   A 1985 Solar Age Magazine
article states that a radiant barrier will reflect up to 97
percent of the incident radiation.  

Placement of Barriers in Buildings

Since commercial buildings generally have their insulation, if
any, as a part of their roof structure, barriers must be
installed on top of the roof.  Weathering and dust accumulation
will reduce the effectiveness of a barrier over time.

Exterior Barriers for Buildings

Two types of radiant barriers exist on the market.  The first is
a sheet of low-E material, such as aluminum foil.  The foil is
normally laminated to a rigid scrim (a coarse fabric) to
facilitate installation.  The second is a paint which may be
applied to any surface.  The paint is only slightly less
effective than foil in its performance, but it can also be
applied externally and to a surface of any shape.

CASE STUDIES:

Application of Paint Barrier in Arkansas
In 1987, a radiant barrier paint was applied to the
28,000-square-foot roof of an egg production facility. The
application of the barrier reduced the roof temperature by 40
degrees fahrenheit.  The production facility was closed but in
1990 the coating was still in good condition and the interior
temperatures of the building were lower than adjacent untreated
buildings.  (Contact: Bob Aresty, Solar Energy Corporation, 129
Walters Avenue, Trenton, NJ  08638, (609) 883-7700.)




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Article: 10890 of sci.energy
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Date: 31 Dec 92 12:43 PST
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RESOURCES

The Passive Solar Industries Council is a national association
devoted to providing practical information on energy conscious,
passive solar design and construction throughout the United
States building industry.  PSIC provides accurate and easy-to-use
guidelines, software and general information about energy
conservation measures (ECMs), energy efficient equipment and
appliances, daylighting and passive solar architecture.  PSIC
will be publishing  Smaller Commercial Building Guidelines in
mid-1993.  Contact PSIC at 1511 K Street NW, Suite 600,
Washington, DC  20005, (202) 371-0357.

The National Audubon Society has published a packet of
information, Building for an Environmental Future,  on the
retrofit of their national headquarters.  The packet details the
ECMs included in the retrofit and the environmental benefits
associated with each ECM.  The packet also provides a listing of
environmentally conscious architectural firms.  In addition,
Audubon has published a Technical Guide which provides specific
information on how to incorporate environmentally sound
principles into any building project.  Contact the National
Audubon Society, Conservation Information Department, 950 Third
Avenue, New York City, NY, 10022, (212) 546-9195.

Energy & Economics: Strategies for Office Building Design is a
guidebook for design professionals which contains strategies for
designing efficient buildings.  The book examines specific
projects for improving the efficiency of lighting, building
envelope design, heating, ventilation and air conditioning
(HVAC), and much more.  Each example is examined for its cost and
energy savings.  Contact the Northeast Utilities Service Company,
Conservation and Load Management, P.O. Box 270, Hartford, CT 
06141, (203) 721-2976.

The Department of Energy established in January 1989 mandatory
standards for all new federal commercial building construction. 
For a copy of the guidelines contact the Office of Codes and
Standards, CE-43, U.S. Department of Energy, 1000 Independence
Ave., SW, Washington, DC  20585, (202) 586-9127.

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories (LBL) has pioneered the research
of a number of energy-efficient technologies.  In particular,
they have been working on gas-filled panels and low-emissivity
windows. For more information, contact LBL, Center for Building
Sciences, Mail Stop: 90-3111, Berkeley, CA 94720, (510) 486-4800.



From samba!concert!gatech!destroyer!caen!saimiri.primate.wisc.edu!ames!sgi!cdp!ei Fri Jan  1 22:34:39 EST 1993
Article: 10891 of sci.energy
Path: samba!concert!gatech!destroyer!caen!saimiri.primate.wisc.edu!ames!sgi!cdp!ei
From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 13:54 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - HVAC-2
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PUTTING YOUR COOLING SYSTEM ON ICE

Thermal Energy Storage (TES) systems make ice during off-peak
utility hours and then use that ice for cooling during peak
hours. While it is possible to design a TES system that is more
energy efficient than a conventional system, the main appeal of
these systems is economic. TES systems operate chillers at night
rather than during the day, lowering a facility~s (and therefore
the utility~s) daytime electric demand, generally allowing the
facity to pay a lower rate for electricity. By lowering peak
demand, these systems minimize a utility~s use of inefficient and
polluting boilers.

How TES Works

TES systems make ice at night when electricity rates are lower
and then pass chiller water through the ice during the day to
provide cooling. Instead of using pure water, the TES chiller
water is mixed with ethylene glycol (an antifreeze) at about a
three-to-one ratio. At night, the chiller (either
vapor-compression or absorption) chills the water to about 25o F,
rather than the usual 45o F. This supercooled solution is
circulated through a pipe (a mile or longer in length) which has
been tightly coiled and submersed in water within a storage tank.
The water in the tank loses heat to the solution and freezes (as
the water freezes it expands upwards). During the day, a control
system combines both the chiller and the ice as the cooling
system. The installation of this system allows a smaller chiller
(about 40 percent smaller) than the building would require, since
the chiller has all night to make ice which will supplement the
cooling load during the day.

Antifreeze Poses Danger to Animals

Because of its toxicity, care should be exercised in the handling
of ethylene glycol and other antifreeze agents. The danger does
not arise from the use of the antifreeze, but rather accidental
spills during transporting and handling the substance. According
to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, ethylene glycol is a
colorless syrup alcohol which has a sweet flavor that attracts
animals. The antifreeze crystallizes in the kidneys, leading to
kidney failure. 

Energy Efficiency of TES

Typically, TES is less energy efficient than a conventional
system. The freezing and melting of ice has its own built-in
inefficiencies which do not exist in conventional systems.
However, the introduction of adjustable speed drives can reduce
the total energy used by the system. In addition, the ice can
provide colder chiller water than conventional systems, which
means that less water is necessary to cool the air in the air
handlers. This translates into less water which must be
circulated and a corresponding energy savings.

CASE STUDY:

TES System at Police Station
The City of Phoenix, Arizona replaced an inefficient 120-ton
chiller system with a 60-ton high efficiency chiller system and
ice storage at the Police Training Academy. The chiller will
operate at night, making ice to be used for cooling during the
day. In addition to the $38,250 equipment rebate for shifting 153
kilowatts to off-peak time, $6,130 and 94,300 kWh will be saved
annually. The city coordinated with the utility to determine the
best load and rate schedule for the project. (Contact: Dimitrios
Laloudakis, Energy Conservation Manager, 2631 South 22nd Ave.,
Phoenix, AZ 85009, (602) 261-8813.)




From samba!concert!gatech!destroyer!gumby!wupost!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!saimiri.primate.wisc.edu!ames!sgi!cdp!ei Fri Jan  1 22:34:51 EST 1993
Article: 10892 of sci.energy
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From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
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Date: 31 Dec 92 13:54 PST
Subject: Energy Ideas - HVAC-2
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ENERGY IDEAS -- AIR CONDITIONING (Vol. 1, No. 4, December 1992)

Editor -- Jonathan Kleinman
Founder, Center for Study of Responsive Law -- Ralph Nader
Director, Government Purchasing Project -- Eleanor Lewis


This issue of "Energy Ideas" continues the discussion of heating,
ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.  In particular,
this issue considers increasing chiller efficiency, absorption
cooling systems, thermal energy storage and adjustable speed
drives.  One article covers an emerging technology -- fuel cells.

This issue also covers two environmental topics.  The first is
the selection of refrigerants for air conditioning systems.  As
the ozone hole continues to fade away, the selection of safe
fluids for use as refrigerants in air conditioning systems
becomes increasingly important.  HFCs and absorption cooling
systems provide the safest alternatives.  Also, end users have
begun to ask what they should do with their fluorescent lights
after the lights burn out.  They contain mercury, a toxic metal,
and the EPA has not stated whether end users will be held liable
for disposal of these lights into municipal landfills.

The last article of this issue contains a survey.  Please take
the time to answer the survey -- we would like to make this a
more effective resource for users of e-mail.  (please send
responses to ei (on EcoNet) or ei@igc.apc.org (on InterNet)).

To read an article, type <topic number>.<article number>

1.  Introduction
2.  Improving Cooling System Efficiency
3.  Switching from Electricity to Natural Gas
4.  Refrigerants: What are the Alternatives ?
5.  Life-Cycle Cost Analysis: Absorption vs. Vapor-Compression
6.  Thermal Energy Storage
7.  Adjustable Speed Drives
8.  On the Horizon: Fuel Cells
9.  Lighting Update: Mercury in Fluorescent Bulbs
10.  Resources
11.  Survey




From samba!concert!gatech!destroyer!gumby!wupost!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!saimiri.primate.wisc.edu!ames!sgi!cdp!ei Fri Jan  1 22:35:01 EST 1993
Article: 10893 of sci.energy
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From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 13:54 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - HVAC-2
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INTRODUCTION

Concerted government purchases of energy-efficient and
non-ozone-depleting air conditioning systems can accomplish two
goals. First, these systems save money. Second, purchasing these
systems accelerates the diffusion of safe cooling systems into
the market, where they are desperately needed to minimize the
environmental impact of our energy use. 

According to an article in the October 30, 1992 Los Angeles
Times, the ozone hole over Antarctica stretches over nine million
record-breaking square miles (three times the size of the
continental United States), far enough to cover portions of
Chile. In the Northern hemisphere, the ozone layer has diminished
sharply over parts of Western Europe this year. In Oslo, Norway,
ozone measurements fell below 50 percent of normal levels.

The ozone layer blocks high-energy ultraviolet (UV) radiation
emitted by the sun. The thinning of the ozone layer over the
oceans can cause reduced reproductivity or death in several
surface-dwelling organisms, phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish
larvae, decimating the food chain. UV radiation has also been
linked to skin cancer and suppression of the human immune system.
According to the World Resources Institute, continued depletion
of stratospheric ozone can significantly increase the incidence
of skin cancer ~ perhaps as many as 12 million more cases in the
United States over the next 50 years ~ and adversely affect
agricultural production. 

Buildings and their air conditioning systems have been largely
responsible for the loss of ozone. Until recently, these systems
used chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chemicals whose thermodynamic
properties and supposed non-toxicity make them ideal
refrigerants. According to the National Audubon Society, nearly a
quarter of all emitted CFCs originate in building air
conditioning systems and the manufacturing processes used to make
building materials. Once emitted, a CFC molecule travels to the
atmosphere, where it can remain for over 100 years. Eventually,
sunlight breaks apart the molecule, freeing a chlorine atom which
destroys surrounding ozone molecules. Although industry has
touted newer refrigerants such as hydrochlorofluorcarbons (HCFCs)
as safer alternatives, these chemicals still release chlorine
into the atmosphere.

Air conditioning systems also affect the environment through
their energy consumption. Inefficient systems result in excessive
electricity consumption and contribute to the greenhouse effect,
acid rain, urban smog and the generation of low-level radioactive
waste. Inefficient systems also waste taxpayers~ money. The money
spent powering a school~s inefficient cooling system could be
spent instead on books.

This issue of Energy Ideas discusses ways to improve the energy
efficiency of air conditioning systems, from proper maintenance
to installation of adjustable speed drives. It also addresses the
alternatives to ozone-depleting cooling equipment.





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Article: 10894 of sci.energy
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Date: 31 Dec 92 13:54 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - HVAC-2
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ON THE HORIZON: FUEL CELLS

Fuel cells provide both heat and electric power without burning
fuel. Since they operate at relatively low temperatures and use
clean fuels, these cogenerators emit far less pollution than
conventional fossil fuel electricity sources. In addition, fuel
cells attain higher efficiencies than typical cogeneration
facilities (over 80 percent). 

Power from Electrochemical Reactions

Though a fuel cell does not burn fossil fuels, it consumes the
fuel in an electrochemical reaction which produces electricity
directly. A fuel cell consists of three parts: the fuel
processor, the power section and the power conditioner (see
diagram below). In a natural gas fuel cell, the fuel (methane) is
mixed with steam in the fuel processor. The chemical reaction
between the two gases yields a gas consisting of hydrogen, carbon
dioxide and trace amounts of nitrogen oxides. This gas is moved
to the power section, where an electrochemical reaction takes
place between the hydrogen and oxygen in air. This reaction
produces direct current (dc) electricity, steam and heat. The
steam is returned to the fuel processor to continue the cycle.
The power conditioner transforms the current into alternating
current (ac) which can be used on-site.

Types of Fuel Cells

Fuel cells are classified by the electrolyte they use. An
electrolyte is a non-metallic substance which can conduct
electricity. In the power section, the electrochemical reaction
occurs in the presence of an electrolyte, which conducts the
electrons yielded by the reaction toward the power conditioner.
The five types of fuel cells are: alkaline, which use potassium
hydroxide as the electrolyte; phosphoric acid; molten carbonate,
which use a liquid alkali carbonate; solid oxide, which use rare
metal oxides; and solid polymer, which use a polymer membrane as
the electrolyte. Currently, only phosphoric acid fuel cells have
been used commercially, because phosphoric acid is the only
common stable acid which will not react with either hydrogen or
oxygen.

Advantages of Fuel Cells

The main advantage of the fuel cell is the reduced emission of
air pollutants. According to an article in the May 22, 1992 Los
Angeles Times ("The Natural Gas-Powered Fuel Cell System," p.
D1), a natural gas fuel cell emits only 1,130 pounds of carbon
dioxide and 0.02 pounds of nitrogen oxide per megawatt-hour
(MWh), while a conventional power plant (presumably coal-fired)
emits 1,485 pounds of carbon dioxide and 5.74 pounds of nitrogen
oxide. The reduction in carbon dioxide emissions may be
attributed to both a slightly higher electricity generation
efficiency (42 percent as opposed to 34 percent for combustion)
and the use of natural gas instead of coal, which contains less
carbon per unit of energy. The reduction in nitrogen oxide
emissions may be attributed to the lower operating temperature of
the fuel cell as compared to a conventional power plant. In
addition, the use of natural gas eliminates emissions of volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) and sulfur dioxide, which lead to acid
rain.

Other advantages make the fuel cell a promising energy source.
According to the Southern California Gas Company, fuel cells
provide a constant, uninterrupted energy flow, since the cell
does not experience the power fluctuations typical of a utitlity
grid. The fuel cell is easy to operate and maintain, since it has
fewer moving parts, like turbine blades, than conventional power
systems. In addition, the fuel cell is modular, and its size can
be easily increased when growing demand requires more power.

CASE STUDY:

Fuel Cell Installation atop Office Building
In 1992, a 200-kW fuel cell was installed at the South Coast Air
Quality Management District (SCAQMD) headquarters in Diamond Bar,
California. This fuel cell is the first of ten which will be
installed, owned and operated by the Southern California Gas
Company. In this agreement, SCAQMD has agreed to purchase the
natural gas for the fuel cell; all of the electricity is used
on-site, and SCAQMD receives a 10 percent discount on its
electricity consumption. The fuel cell also provides all of the
building~s heat. Ranji George of SCAQMD stated that the agency
has a responsiblity to assist in the integration of technologies
which will lead to reductions in air pollution, and thus agreed
to test the fuel cell. He reported that the fuel cell has run
continuously without any problems since installed.(Contact:
Michelle Bagley, Southern California Gas Company, 555 W. Fifth
Street, Los Angeles, CA 90013, (213) 244-2544.)




From samba!concert!gatech!destroyer!gumby!wupost!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!saimiri.primate.wisc.edu!ames!sgi!cdp!ei Fri Jan  1 22:35:20 EST 1993
Article: 10895 of sci.energy
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From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 13:55 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - HVAC-2
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LIGHTING TECHNOLOGY UPDATE: DISPOSAL OF FLUORESCENT BULBS

While compact fluorescent (CFL) and long-tube fluorescent bulbs
save energy, they present disposal problems because they contain
mercury vapor. Fluorescent bulbs have always been discarded in
municipal landfills, but the question of what environmental
hazard is posed by the mercury contained within them has never
been addressed. With lighting retrofits in commercial buildings,
massive quantities of T-12 fluorescent bulbs are discarded.
Eventually, CFLs and other energy-efficient bulbs will burn out
and require disposal. These frequently contain a sufficient
amount of mercury to be classified as hazardous waste.

Toxicity of Mercury

Mercury is a heavy metal with a high toxicity and a strong
tendency to accumulate in the food chain. Worldwide, the major
source of mercury in humans is consumption of
mercury-contaminated food, especially fish. Long-term exposure,
or exposure during developmental stages, to either organic or
inorganic mercury can permanently damage the brain and kidneys.
Short-term exposure to high levels of inorganic or organic
mercury can cause similar health effects, which may be
reversible. Pregnant women, children and fetuses appear to be at
highest risk.

Mercury poisoning also damages the ecosystem. Mercury is unique
among the metals in that it consistently accumulates, rather than
diminishes, within the aquatic food chain. Organisms eating
mercury-contaminated fish, such as birds, wild mink and otter,
have been found to have mercury poisoning. In addition, several
countries have reported poisoning of birds through ingestion of
seeds treated with mercury compounds, and of predatory animals
through ingestion of contaminated birds.

Mercury in Landfills on the Rise

The use of fluorescent lights has increased the amount of mercury
in the municipal solid waste stream (MSWS). According to the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the amount of mercury in
the MSWS from electric lighting is expected to rise dramatically
in the next decade. In 1970, well after the entry of the
fluorescent bulb into the market, 19.1 short tons of mercury
entered the MSWS; in 1980, 24.3 short tons; in 1989, 26.7 short
tons; and in 2000, an estimated 40.9 short tons of mercury is
expected. This increase is not likely to cause a switch to
another metal vapor, since no other metal performs as well as
mercury.

Energy-Efficiency May Offset Increase

Energy-efficient lighting will, however, reduce the amount of
mercury released into the air. According to a series of
independent studies, coal-fired power plants emit 80 to 90 tons
of mercury into the air every year in the United States. The EPA,
the Electric Power Research Institute and the Department of
Energy are currently conducting studies to measure more
accurately the amount of mercury emitted by coal plants, but
these results are not expected until after 1994.

The Question of Liability

As of yet, the EPA has not ruled on whether a facility that
discards fluorescent bulbs is liable for future cleanup costs. As
reported in the October, 1992 Energy User News ( "EPA: Spent
Fluorescent, HID Lamps May Be Hazardous Waste," p. 1), "end users
who discard spent fluorescent or high intensity discharge lamps
in municipal landfills may be violating federal hazardous waste
regulations and could be liable for fines or clean-up costs
[emphasis added]." 

Therefore, end users now must determine whether the lamps contain
a hazardous amount of mercury. According to David Layland of the
EPA~s Office of Solid Waste in Washington, DC, fluorescent bulbs
must undergo a "toxicity characteristic" test (TCLP) to classify
them as hazardous waste. This test mimics the conditions of a
landfill disposal and determines the mercury concentration of the
water which will leach from the landfill. If the mercury
concentration exceeds 0.2 milligrams per liter, the lamp fails
the toxicity test and must be disposed in a licensed hazardous
waste facility. 

States Enact Their Own Policies

The only federal legislation regulating the disposal of mercury
is the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). RCRA does
not require generators of small quantities of mercury (less than
100 kilograms per month) to dispose their waste in a licensed
hazardous waste landfill. This translates to roughly 350-400
bulbs per month. However, poor record keeping in a municipal
landfill may not identify who disposed of the bulbs in the
landfill, and any facility disposing of a large number of the
bulbs may be held liable for Superfund Cleanup. The EPA will not
clarify the fluorescent bulb question until 1993.

As a result, states have begun to address this issue. In
California, for example, the state EPA established a policy in
1988 under which end users may not dispose more than 25
fluorescent lamps per day in dumpsters bound for municipal
landfills. In Minnesota, the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
(MPCA) strongly recommends that the lamps be recycled rather than
landfilled or incinerated. The October, 1992 Energy User News
reported that, in Minnesota, "a business or institution that
replaces the equivalent of more than 1,000 four-foot fluorescent
lamps per year must have a hazardous waste license and report to
the MPCA or appropriate metro-area county on what it does with
the used lamps. Smaller quantities need not be reported but must
still be managed properly as described in [an MPCA] fact sheet."

Recycling Processes Have Been Developed

Private firms have developed an enclosed recycling process which
crushes the fluorescent lamps in a vacuum and removes the mercury
vapor. A separating unit divides the remaining phosphor powder,
glass and metal. Mercury residuals, according to test data, are
well below legal limits. The glass and metal are recycled. The
phosphor powder is heated to volatilize and remove the mercury. 
The powder can be reused in another form, although these
additional uses require further investigation. According to one
of the firms, the mercury which is collected in this process
achieves 99.5 percent purity and can be reused in industry. 

Although recycling is currently the most expensive method of
disposal, it is the safest. The least expensive method,
incineration, will result in the emission of mercury into the
air. The second method of disposal, landfill in a licensed
hazardous waste facility, releases the end user of liability, but
nonetheless poses an environmental threat. The actual cost of
recycling, which may be 12 cents per bulb, does not prove to be
expensive relative to the total cost of a lighting retrofit.
According to a recycling firm, when including all of the costs
from using fluorescent lights for five years, recycling the
lights at the end of their useful life only accounts for 2
percent of the total cost. 




From samba!concert!gatech!destroyer!gumby!wupost!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!saimiri.primate.wisc.edu!ames!sgi!cdp!ei Fri Jan  1 22:35:27 EST 1993
Article: 10896 of sci.energy
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From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 13:55 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - HVAC-2
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RESOURCES

Energy User News is a monthly publication concerning commercial
and industrial energy use. Four recent issues provide important
directories: November, 1992 contains a product guide of
chiller-heaters; October, 1992 contains a list of firms which
recycle spent fluorescent bulbs; April, 1992 contains a directory
of Demand-Side Management rebates offered by utilities across the
country; and February, 1992 contains a product guide for
reflectors and ballasts. Call 1-800-247-8080 for subscription
information.

The Electric Ideas Clearinghouse, a program of the Bonneville
Power Administration, offers a hotline to provide fast, free
information on commercial and industrial energy efficient
technologies, products and programs. They also have an electronic
bulletin board service with software libraries, training
calendar, referrals directory and discussion groups. Priority is
given to energy professionals in the Bonneville Power service
area (Washington, Oregon, Montana and Idaho). Within this area,
call (800) 872-3568; outside call (206) 586-8588.

The American Gas Cooling Center's (AGCC) new Natural Gas Cooling
Equipment Guide ($30 for members, $50 for non-members) introduces
three basic types of gas cooling equipment - absorption,
engine-driven and desiccant - and presents brief descriptions of
equipment that is commercially available today. Also included are
short descriptions of systems under development. The guide
provides information necessary to identify options and evaluate
their feasibility for specific applications. A manufacturer
contact for each gas cooling system is also identified. The AGCC
is a gas industry organization that directly supports technology
transfer and commercialization of advanced gas cooling equipment
to create a greater role for natural gas in the American energy
market. To order the Guide, contact Karima Davis, AGCC, 1515
Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, VA  22209, (703) 841-8410.

The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), founded in 1972,
manages technical research and development programs for the U.S.
electric utility industry to improve power production,
distribution and use. Some 700 utilities are members of the
institute. EPRI operates a customer assistance center, which
provides technical information to end-users of electric-powered
equipment. To reach the hotline, call 1-800-766-3774.

The Institute for Energy and Environmental Research (IEER) has
published a book which discusses the causes of ozone depletion,
the possible consequences and policies for the restoration of the
ozone layer.  Mending the Ozone Hole (250 pp.), by Arjun
Makhijani, Ph. D., and Kevin Gurney, is available for $25 from
IEER, 6935 Laurel Avenue, Takoma Park, MD 20912, (301) 270-5500.




From samba!concert!gatech!destroyer!caen!saimiri.primate.wisc.edu!ames!sgi!cdp!ei Fri Jan  1 22:35:33 EST 1993
Article: 10897 of sci.energy
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Date: 31 Dec 92 13:54 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - HVAC-2
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VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES PROVIDE FLEXIBLE POWER

One of the most energy-intensive activities of heating,
ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems is the operation
of pumps and fans. Frequently, when a thermostat or other energy
management control device signals the HVAC system to increase or
decrease the temperature in a building, the HVAC system operates
at full power. This is seldom needed. Since frequent operation of
a pump or fan at a low rate consumes less energy than infrequent
operation of a pump or fan at a high flow rate, the installation
of a motor that varies its speed saves energy. These motors are
called adjustable speed drives (ASDs).
How They Work

The speed of a motor can be controlled by varying the amount and
frequency of the voltage applied to a motor, and by varying the
current passing through a motor. ASDs alter the speed of both
direct-current (dc - the type of current produced by a battery)
and alternating current (ac - the type of current produced by a
generator) motors by varying a fixed input voltage and current.

When used to drive dc motors, ASDs typically control both the
voltage and the current. At lower speeds, the current is
maintained at the value rated for the motor while the voltage is
increased to produce increased speed and torque (the force of the
twist provided by the motor). Above the rated speed, the voltage
is maintained at its rated value while the field current is
decreased to produce higher operation speeds.

ASDs control ac motors by controlling the magnitude of their
voltage as well as the frequency of the supply. An ac ASD
consists of three components: the rectifier, which converts an ac
signal to a fixed dc voltage or to an adjustable ac voltage; the
filter/dc link, which smooths the output of the rectifier; and
the inverter, which converts the dc output into an ac output of
adjustable frequency and adjustable voltage. 

Improved Efficiency and Other Benefits

According to an article in the September, 1992 Energy User News
("Graham Adds 300-Hp Unit to Its Series of Adjustable Speed
Motors," p. 18), installing an ASD can reduce energy consumption
by up to 60 percent. These motors can be used in chilled water
circulating systems, cooling towers, heat exchangers, exhaust and
make-up air systems, fume hoods, dust collecting systems,
domestic hot water and waste treatment systems. As shown in the
above diagram, the ASD compares the signals received from a
sensor and the setpoint and adjusts the motor speed to match the
two signals. 
Electronic speed control offers much more than just energy
savings. Less maintenance is one benefit, since electronic speed
controls often replace a mechanical transmission system. The
mechanical stresses on the machines, bearings and shafts are
lower, which prolongs the service life of the equipment. Because
of the low starting current, the thermal stress on the machine
itself and the electrical stress on the power supply are
substantially reduced.

A motor controlled by an ASD should not be operated at its
maximum output. The ASD
components use electricity to function and increase the electric
load. A 150 horsepower (hp) ASD motor operating at full power
consumes more energy than a constant 150 hp motor. The advantage
to the system is its variability; if you need a motor to operate
at a constant power level, do not purchase an ASD.

CASE STUDIES:

Installation at Police Station
The City of Phoenix installed a single ASD on a 20 hp tower fan
motor at the Police Training Academy. The ASD has saved about
30,000 kWh per year, resulting in annual savings of $2,172. The
installation of the ASD is also expected to reduce tower fan
maintenance. The cooling tower has a fan motor running at 100
percent speed intermittently to maintain a certain condenser
water temperature. The ASD varies the motor speed from 30 to 40
to 60 percent of full speed to maintain a constant cooling water
temperature. Since the energy consumption of the motor varies
with the cube of the speed, these speeds represent energy
reductions of 97 percent, 93 percent and 78 percent,
respectively. The expected payback period of the motor is 2.5 to
3.0 years. (Contact: Dimitrios Laloudakis, Energy Conservation
Manager, 2631 South 22nd Avenue, Phoenix, AZ 85009, (602)
261-8813.)


ASD Installation at School
Between 1988 and 1991, the Phoenix, Arizona, Union High School
District #210 added ASDs to the chilled/hot water systems on all
campuses. Each ASD cost about $180,000 and reduced the energy
consumption of each motor by approximately 60 percent. The pumps
were resized and some were replaced with higher efficiency pumps.
The district has not experienced any operating difficulties and
has an ongoing maintenance agreement with the manufacturer of the
ASDs. (Contact: Kenneth E. Wissinger, Assistant to the
Superintendent for Business and Operations, Phoenix Union High
School District #210, 4502 North Central Avenue, Phoenix, AZ
85012, (602) 271-3301.)




From samba!concert!gatech!destroyer!caen!saimiri.primate.wisc.edu!ames!sgi!cdp!ei Fri Jan  1 22:35:42 EST 1993
Article: 10898 of sci.energy
Path: samba!concert!gatech!destroyer!caen!saimiri.primate.wisc.edu!ames!sgi!cdp!ei
From: Essential Information <ei@igc.apc.org>
Newsgroups: sci.energy
Date: 31 Dec 92 13:55 PST
Subject: Re: Energy Ideas - HVAC-2
Sender: Notesfile to Usenet Gateway <notes@igc.apc.org>
Message-ID: <1466300146@igc.apc.org>
References: <1466300134@igc.apc.org>
Nf-ID: #R:cdp:1466300134:cdp:1466300146:000:1483
Nf-From: cdp.UUCP!ei    Dec 31 13:55:00 1992
Lines: 89



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