# The Netwide Assembler: NASM

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## Chapter 7: Output Formats

NASM is a portable assembler, designed to be able to compile on any ANSI C-supporting platform and produce output to run on a variety of Intel x86 operating systems. For this reason, it has a large number of available output formats, selected using the `-f` option on the NASM command line. Each of these formats, along with its extensions to the base NASM syntax, is detailed in this chapter.

As stated in section 2.1.1, NASM chooses a default name for your output file based on the input file name and the chosen output format. This will be generated by removing the extension (`.asm`, `.s`, or whatever you like to use) from the input file name, and substituting an extension defined by the output format. The extensions are given with each format below.

### 7.1 `bin`: Flat-Form Binary Output

The `bin` format does not produce object files: it generates nothing in the output file except the code you wrote. Such `pure binary' files are used by MS-DOS: `.COM` executables and `.SYS` device drivers are pure binary files. Pure binary output is also useful for operating system and boot loader development.

The `bin` format supports multiple section names. For details of how NASM handles sections in the `bin` format, see section 7.1.3.

Using the `bin` format puts NASM by default into 16-bit mode (see section 6.1). In order to use `bin` to write 32-bit or 64-bit code, such as an OS kernel, you need to explicitly issue the `BITS 32` or `BITS 64` directive.

`bin` has no default output file name extension: instead, it leaves your file name as it is once the original extension has been removed. Thus, the default is for NASM to assemble `binprog.asm` into a binary file called `binprog`.

#### 7.1.1 `ORG`: Binary File Program Origin

The `bin` format provides an additional directive to the list given in chapter 6: `ORG`. The function of the `ORG` directive is to specify the origin address which NASM will assume the program begins at when it is loaded into memory.

For example, the following code will generate the longword `0x00000104`:

            org     0x100
            dd      label
    label:

Unlike the `ORG` directive provided by MASM-compatible assemblers, which allows you to jump around in the object file and overwrite code you have already generated, NASM's `ORG` does exactly what the directive says: origin. Its sole function is to specify one offset which is added to all internal address references within the section; it does not permit any of the trickery that MASM's version does. See section 12.1.3 for further comments.

#### 7.1.2 `bin` Extensions to the `SECTION` Directive

The `bin` output format extends the `SECTION` (or `SEGMENT`) directive to allow you to specify the alignment requirements of segments. This is done by appending the `ALIGN` qualifier to the end of the section-definition line. For example,

    section .data   align=16

switches to the section `.data` and also specifies that it must be aligned on a 16-byte boundary.

The parameter to `ALIGN` specifies how many low bits of the section start address must be forced to zero. The alignment value given may be any power of two.

#### 7.1.3 Multisection Support for the `bin` Format

The `bin` format allows the use of multiple sections, of arbitrary names, besides the "known" `.text`, `.data`, and `.bss` names.

- Sections may be designated `progbits` or `nobits`. Default is `progbits` (except `.bss`, which defaults to `nobits`, of course).
- Sections can be aligned at a specified boundary following the previous section with `align=`, or at an arbitrary byte-granular position with `start=`.
- Sections can be given a virtual start address, which will be used for the calculation of all memory references within that section with `vstart=`.
- Sections can be ordered using `follows=``<section>` or `vfollows=``<section>` as an alternative to specifying an explicit start address.
- Arguments to `org`, `start`, `vstart`, and `align=` are critical expressions. See section 3.8. E.g. `align=(1 << ALIGN_SHIFT)` - `ALIGN_SHIFT` must be defined before it is used here.
- Any code which comes before an explicit `SECTION` directive is directed by default into the `.text` section.
- If an `ORG` statement is not given, `ORG 0` is used by default.
- The `.bss` section will be placed after the last `progbits` section, unless `start=`, `vstart=`, `follows=`, or `vfollows=` has been specified.
- All sections are aligned on dword boundaries, unless a different alignment has been specified.
- Sections may not overlap.
- NASM creates the `section.<secname>.start` for each section, which may be used in your code.

#### 7.1.4 Map Files

Map files can be generated in `-f bin` format by means of the `[map]` option. Map types of `all` (default), `brief`, `sections`, `segments`, or `symbols` may be specified. Output may be directed to `stdout` (default), `stderr`, or a specified file. E.g. `[map symbols myfile.map]`. No "user form" exists, the square brackets must be used.

### 7.2 `ith`: Intel Hex Output

The `ith` file format produces Intel hex-format files. Just as the `bin` format, this is a flat memory image format with no support for relocation or linking. It is usually used with ROM programmers and similar utilities.

All extensions supported by the `bin` file format is also supported by the `ith` file format.

`ith` provides a default output file-name extension of `.ith`.

### 7.3 `srec`: Motorola S-Records Output

The `srec` file format produces Motorola S-records files. Just as the `bin` format, this is a flat memory image format with no support for relocation or linking. It is usually used with ROM programmers and similar utilities.

All extensions supported by the `bin` file format is also supported by the `srec` file format.

`srec` provides a default output file-name extension of `.srec`.

### 7.4 `obj`: Microsoft OMF Object Files

The `obj` file format (NASM calls it `obj` rather than `omf` for historical reasons) is the one produced by MASM and TASM, which is typically fed to 16-bit DOS linkers to produce `.EXE` files. It is also the format used by OS/2.

`obj` provides a default output file-name extension of `.obj`.

`obj` is not exclusively a 16-bit format, though: NASM has full support for the 32-bit extensions to the format. In particular, 32-bit `obj` format files are used by Borland's Win32 compilers, instead of using Microsoft's newer `win32` object file format.

The `obj` format does not define any special segment names: you can call your segments anything you like. Typical names for segments in `obj` format files are `CODE`, `DATA` and `BSS`.

If your source file contains code before specifying an explicit `SEGMENT` directive, then NASM will invent its own segment called `__NASMDEFSEG` for you.

When you define a segment in an `obj` file, NASM defines the segment name as a symbol as well, so that you can access the segment address of the segment. So, for example:

    segment data

    dvar:   dw      1234

    segment code

    function:
            mov     ax,data         ; get segment address of data
            mov     ds,ax           ; and move it into DS
            inc     word [dvar]     ; now this reference will work
            ret

The `obj` format also enables the use of the `SEG` and `WRT` operators, so that you can write code which does things like

    extern  foo

          mov   ax,seg foo            ; get preferred segment of foo
          mov   ds,ax
          mov   ax,data               ; a different segment
          mov   es,ax
          mov   ax,[ds:foo]           ; this accesses `foo'
          mov   [es:foo wrt data],bx  ; so does this

#### 7.4.1 `obj` Extensions to the `SEGMENT` Directive

The `obj` output format extends the `SEGMENT` (or `SECTION`) directive to allow you to specify various properties of the segment you are defining. This is done by appending extra qualifiers to the end of the segment-definition line. For example,

    segment code private align=16

defines the segment `code`, but also declares it to be a private segment, and requires that the portion of it described in this code module must be aligned on a 16-byte boundary.

The available qualifiers are:

- `PRIVATE`, `PUBLIC`, `COMMON` and `STACK` specify the combination characteristics of the segment. `PRIVATE` segments do not get combined with any others by the linker; `PUBLIC` and `STACK` segments get concatenated together at link time; and `COMMON` segments all get overlaid on top of each other rather than stuck end-to-end.
- `ALIGN` is used, as shown above, to specify how many low bits of the segment start address must be forced to zero. The alignment value given may be any power of two from 1 to 4096; in reality, the only values supported are 1, 2, 4, 16, 256 and 4096, so if 8 is specified it will be rounded up to 16, and 32, 64 and 128 will all be rounded up to 256, and so on. Note that alignment to 4096-byte boundaries is a PharLap extension to the format and may not be supported by all linkers.
- `CLASS` can be used to specify the segment class; this feature indicates to the linker that segments of the same class should be placed near each other in the output file. The class name can be any word, e.g. `CLASS=CODE`.
- `OVERLAY`, like `CLASS`, is specified with an arbitrary word as an argument, and provides overlay information to an overlay-capable linker.
- Segments can be declared as `USE16` or `USE32`, which has the effect of recording the choice in the object file and also ensuring that NASM's default assembly mode when assembling in that segment is 16-bit or 32-bit respectively.
- When writing OS/2 object files, you should declare 32-bit segments as `FLAT`, which causes the default segment base for anything in the segment to be the special group `FLAT`, and also defines the group if it is not already defined.
- The `obj` file format also allows segments to be declared as having a pre-defined absolute segment address, although no linkers are currently known to make sensible use of this feature; nevertheless, NASM allows you to declare a segment such as `SEGMENT SCREEN ABSOLUTE=0xB800` if you need to. The `ABSOLUTE` and `ALIGN` keywords are mutually exclusive.

NASM's default segment attributes are `PUBLIC`, `ALIGN=1`, no class, no overlay, and `USE16`.

#### 7.4.2 `GROUP`: Defining Groups of Segments

The `obj` format also allows segments to be grouped, so that a single segment register can be used to refer to all the segments in a group. NASM therefore supplies the `GROUP` directive, whereby you can code

    segment data

            ; some data

    segment bss

            ; some uninitialized data

    group dgroup data bss

which will define a group called `dgroup` to contain the segments `data` and `bss`. Like `SEGMENT`, `GROUP` causes the group name to be defined as a symbol, so that you can refer to a variable `var` in the `data` segment as `var wrt data` or as `var wrt dgroup`, depending on which segment value is currently in your segment register.

If you just refer to `var`, however, and `var` is declared in a segment which is part of a group, then NASM will default to giving you the offset of `var` from the beginning of the group, not the segment. Therefore `SEG var`, also, will return the group base rather than the segment base.

NASM will allow a segment to be part of more than one group, but will generate a warning if you do this. Variables declared in a segment which is part of more than one group will default to being relative to the first group that was defined to contain the segment.

A group does not have to contain any segments; you can still make `WRT` references to a group which does not contain the variable you are referring to. OS/2, for example, defines the special group `FLAT` with no segments in it.

#### 7.4.3 `UPPERCASE`: Disabling Case Sensitivity in Output

Although NASM itself is case sensitive, some OMF linkers are not; therefore it can be useful for NASM to output single-case object files. The `UPPERCASE` format-specific directive causes all segment, group and symbol names that are written to the object file to be forced to upper case just before being written. Within a source file, NASM is still case-sensitive; but the object file can be written entirely in upper case if desired.

`UPPERCASE` is used alone on a line; it requires no parameters.

#### 7.4.4 `IMPORT`: Importing DLL Symbols

The `IMPORT` format-specific directive defines a symbol to be imported from a DLL, for use if you are writing a DLL's import library in NASM. You still need to declare the symbol as `EXTERN` as well as using the `IMPORT` directive.

The `IMPORT` directive takes two required parameters, separated by white space, which are (respectively) the name of the symbol you wish to import and the name of the library you wish to import it from. For example:

        import  WSAStartup wsock32.dll

A third optional parameter gives the name by which the symbol is known in the library you are importing it from, in case this is not the same as the name you wish the symbol to be known by to your code once you have imported it. For example:

        import  asyncsel wsock32.dll WSAAsyncSelect

#### 7.4.5 `EXPORT`: Exporting DLL Symbols

The `EXPORT` format-specific directive defines a global symbol to be exported as a DLL symbol, for use if you are writing a DLL in NASM. You still need to declare the symbol as `GLOBAL` as well as using the `EXPORT` directive.

`EXPORT` takes one required parameter, which is the name of the symbol you wish to export, as it was defined in your source file. An optional second parameter (separated by white space from the first) gives the external name of the symbol: the name by which you wish the symbol to be known to programs using the DLL. If this name is the same as the internal name, you may leave the second parameter off.

Further parameters can be given to define attributes of the exported symbol. These parameters, like the second, are separated by white space. If further parameters are given, the external name must also be specified, even if it is the same as the internal name. The available attributes are:

- `resident` indicates that the exported name is to be kept resident by the system loader. This is an optimisation for frequently used symbols imported by name.
- `nodata` indicates that the exported symbol is a function which does not make use of any initialized data.
- `parm=NNN`, where `NNN` is an integer, sets the number of parameter words for the case in which the symbol is a call gate between 32-bit and 16-bit segments.
- An attribute which is just a number indicates that the symbol should be exported with an identifying number (ordinal), and gives the desired number.

For example:

        export  myfunc
        export  myfunc TheRealMoreFormalLookingFunctionName
        export  myfunc myfunc 1234  ; export by ordinal
        export  myfunc myfunc resident parm=23 nodata

#### 7.4.6 `..start`: Defining the Program Entry Point

`OMF` linkers require exactly one of the object files being linked to define the program entry point, where execution will begin when the program is run. If the object file that defines the entry point is assembled using NASM, you specify the entry point by declaring the special symbol `..start` at the point where you wish execution to begin.

#### 7.4.7 `obj` Extensions to the `EXTERN` Directive

If you declare an external symbol with the directive

        extern  foo

then references such as `mov ax,foo` will give you the offset of `foo` from its preferred segment base (as specified in whichever module `foo` is actually defined in). So to access the contents of `foo` you will usually need to do something like

            mov     ax,seg foo      ; get preferred segment base
            mov     es,ax           ; move it into ES
            mov     ax,[es:foo]     ; and use offset `foo' from it

This is a little unwieldy, particularly if you know that an external is going to be accessible from a given segment or group, say `dgroup`. So if `DS` already contained `dgroup`, you could simply code

            mov     ax,[foo wrt dgroup]

However, having to type this every time you want to access `foo` can be a pain; so NASM allows you to declare `foo` in the alternative form

        extern  foo:wrt dgroup

This form causes NASM to pretend that the preferred segment base of `foo` is in fact `dgroup`; so the expression `seg foo` will now return `dgroup`, and the expression `foo` is equivalent to `foo wrt dgroup`.

This default-`WRT` mechanism can be used to make externals appear to be relative to any group or segment in your program. It can also be applied to common variables: see section 7.4.8.

#### 7.4.8 `obj` Extensions to the `COMMON` Directive

The `obj` format allows common variables to be either near or far; NASM allows you to specify which your variables should be by the use of the syntax

    common  nearvar 2:near   ; `nearvar' is a near common
    common  farvar  10:far   ; and `farvar' is far

Far common variables may be greater in size than 64Kb, and so the OMF specification says that they are declared as a number of elements of a given size. So a 10-byte far common variable could be declared as ten one-byte elements, five two-byte elements, two five-byte elements or one ten-byte element.

Some `OMF` linkers require the element size, as well as the variable size, to match when resolving common variables declared in more than one module. Therefore NASM must allow you to specify the element size on your far common variables. This is done by the following syntax:

    common  c_5by2  10:far 5        ; two five-byte elements
    common  c_2by5  10:far 2        ; five two-byte elements

If no element size is specified, the default is 1. Also, the `FAR` keyword is not required when an element size is specified, since only far commons may have element sizes at all. So the above declarations could equivalently be

    common  c_5by2  10:5            ; two five-byte elements
    common  c_2by5  10:2            ; five two-byte elements

In addition to these extensions, the `COMMON` directive in `obj` also supports default-`WRT` specification like `EXTERN` does (explained in section 7.4.7). So you can also declare things like

    common  foo     10:wrt dgroup
    common  bar     16:far 2:wrt data
    common  baz     24:wrt data:6

### 7.5 `win32`: Microsoft Win32 Object Files

The `win32` output format generates Microsoft Win32 object files, suitable for passing to Microsoft linkers such as Visual C++. Note that Borland Win32 compilers do not use this format, but use `obj` instead (see section 7.4).

`win32` provides a default output file-name extension of `.obj`.

Note that although Microsoft say that Win32 object files follow the `COFF` (Common Object File Format) standard, the object files produced by Microsoft Win32 compilers are not compatible with COFF linkers such as DJGPP's, and vice versa. This is due to a difference of opinion over the precise semantics of PC-relative relocations. To produce COFF files suitable for DJGPP, use NASM's `coff` output format; conversely, the `coff` format does not produce object files that Win32 linkers can generate correct output from.

#### 7.5.1 `win32` Extensions to the `SECTION` Directive

Like the `obj` format, `win32` allows you to specify additional information on the `SECTION` directive line, to control the type and properties of sections you declare. Section types and properties are generated automatically by NASM for the standard section names `.text`, `.data` and `.bss`, but may still be overridden by these qualifiers.

The available qualifiers are:

- `code`, or equivalently `text`, defines the section to be a code section. This marks the section as readable and executable, but not writable, and also indicates to the linker that the type of the section is code.
- `data` and `bss` define the section to be a data section, analogously to `code`. Data sections are marked as readable and writable, but not executable. `data` declares an initialized data section, whereas `bss` declares an uninitialized data section.
- `rdata` declares an initialized data section that is readable but not writable. Microsoft compilers use this section to place constants in it.
- `info` defines the section to be an informational section, which is not included in the executable file by the linker, but may (for example) pass information to the linker. For example, declaring an `info`-type section called `.drectve` causes the linker to interpret the contents of the section as command-line options.
- `align=`, used with a trailing number as in `obj`, gives the alignment requirements of the section. The maximum you may specify is 64: the Win32 object file format contains no means to request a greater section alignment than this. If alignment is not explicitly specified, the defaults are 16-byte alignment for code sections, 8-byte alignment for rdata sections and 4-byte alignment for data (and BSS) sections. Informational sections get a default alignment of 1 byte (no alignment), though the value does not matter.

The defaults assumed by NASM if you do not specify the above qualifiers are:

    section .text    code  align=16
    section .data    data  align=4
    section .rdata   rdata align=8
    section .bss     bss   align=4

Any other section name is treated by default like `.text`.

#### 7.5.2 `win32`: Safe Structured Exception Handling

Among other improvements in Windows XP SP2 and Windows Server 2003 Microsoft has introduced concept of "safe structured exception handling." General idea is to collect handlers' entry points in designated read-only table and have alleged entry point verified against this table prior exception control is passed to the handler. In order for an executable module to be equipped with such "safe exception handler table," all object modules on linker command line has to comply with certain criteria. If one single module among them does not, then the table in question is omitted and above mentioned run-time checks will not be performed for application in question. Table omission is by default silent and therefore can be easily overlooked. One can instruct linker to refuse to produce binary without such table by passing `/safeseh` command line option.

Without regard to this run-time check merits it's natural to expect NASM to be capable of generating modules suitable for `/safeseh` linking. From developer's viewpoint the problem is two-fold:

- how to adapt modules not deploying exception handlers of their own;
- how to adapt/develop modules utilizing custom exception handling;

Former can be easily achieved with any NASM version by adding following line to source code:

    $@feat.00 equ 1

As of version 2.03 NASM adds this absolute symbol automatically. If it's not already present to be precise. I.e. if for whatever reason developer would choose to assign another value in source file, it would still be perfectly possible.

Registering custom exception handler on the other hand requires certain "magic." As of version 2.03 additional directive is implemented, `safeseh`, which instructs the assembler to produce appropriately formatted input data for above mentioned "safe exception handler table." Its typical use would be:

    section .text
    extern  _MessageBoxA@16
    %if     __NASM_VERSION_ID__ >= 0x02030000
    safeseh handler         ; register handler as "safe handler"
    %endif
    handler:
            push    DWORD 1 ; MB_OKCANCEL
            push    DWORD caption
            push    DWORD text
            push    DWORD 0
            call    _MessageBoxA@16
            sub     eax,1   ; incidentally suits as return value
                            ; for exception handler
            ret
    global  _main
    _main:
            push    DWORD handler
            push    DWORD [fs:0]
            mov     DWORD [fs:0],esp ; engage exception handler
            xor     eax,eax
            mov     eax,DWORD[eax]   ; cause exception
            pop     DWORD [fs:0]     ; disengage exception handler
            add     esp,4
            ret
    text:   db      'OK to rethrow, CANCEL to generate core dump',0
    caption:db      'SEGV',0

    section .drectve info
            db      '/defaultlib:user32.lib /defaultlib:msvcrt.lib '

As you might imagine, it's perfectly possible to produce .exe binary with "safe exception handler table" and yet engage unregistered exception handler. Indeed, handler is engaged by simply manipulating `[fs:0]` location at run-time, something linker has no power over, run-time that is. It should be explicitly mentioned that such failure to register handler's entry point with `safeseh` directive has undesired side effect at run-time. If exception is raised and unregistered handler is to be executed, the application is abruptly terminated without any notification whatsoever. One can argue that system could at least have logged some kind "non-safe exception handler in x.exe at address n" message in event log, but no, literally no notification is provided and user is left with no clue on what caused application failure.

Finally, all mentions of linker in this paragraph refer to Microsoft linker version 7.x and later. Presence of `@feat.00` symbol and input data for "safe exception handler table" causes no backward incompatibilities and "safeseh" modules generated by NASM 2.03 and later can still be linked by earlier versions or non-Microsoft linkers.

#### 7.5.3 Debugging formats for Windows

The `win32` and `win64` formats support the Microsoft CodeView debugging format. Currently CodeView version 8 format is supported (`cv8`), but newer versions of the CodeView debugger should be able to handle this format as well.

### 7.6 `win64`: Microsoft Win64 Object Files

The `win64` output format generates Microsoft Win64 object files, which is nearly 100% identical to the `win32` object format (section 7.5) with the exception that it is meant to target 64-bit code and the x86-64 platform altogether. This object file is used exactly the same as the `win32` object format (section 7.5), in NASM, with regard to this exception.

#### 7.6.1 `win64`: Writing Position-Independent Code

While `REL` takes good care of RIP-relative addressing, there is one aspect that is easy to overlook for a Win64 programmer: indirect references. Consider a switch dispatch table:

            jmp     qword [dsptch+rax*8]
            ...
    dsptch: dq      case0
            dq      case1
            ...

Even a novice Win64 assembler programmer will soon realize that the code is not 64-bit savvy. Most notably linker will refuse to link it with

    'ADDR32' relocation to '.text' invalid without /LARGEADDRESSAWARE:NO

So [s]he will have to split jmp instruction as following:

            lea     rbx,[rel dsptch]
            jmp     qword [rbx+rax*8]

What happens behind the scene is that effective address in `lea` is encoded relative to instruction pointer, or in perfectly position-independent manner. But this is only part of the problem! Trouble is that in .dll context `caseN` relocations will make their way to the final module and might have to be adjusted at .dll load time. To be specific when it can't be loaded at preferred address. And when this occurs, pages with such relocations will be rendered private to current process, which kind of undermines the idea of sharing .dll. But no worry, it's trivial to fix:

            lea     rbx,[rel dsptch]
            add     rbx,[rbx+rax*8]
            jmp     rbx
            ...
    dsptch: dq      case0-dsptch
            dq      case1-dsptch
            ...

NASM version 2.03 and later provides another alternative, `wrt ..imagebase` operator, which returns offset from base address of the current image, be it .exe or .dll module, therefore the name. For those acquainted with PE-COFF format base address denotes start of `IMAGE_DOS_HEADER` structure. Here is how to implement switch with these image-relative references:

            lea     rbx,[rel dsptch]
            mov     eax,[rbx+rax*4]
            sub     rbx,dsptch wrt ..imagebase
            add     rbx,rax
            jmp     rbx
            ...
    dsptch: dd      case0 wrt ..imagebase
            dd      case1 wrt ..imagebase

One can argue that the operator is redundant. Indeed, snippet before last works just fine with any NASM version and is not even Windows specific... The real reason for implementing `wrt ..imagebase` will become apparent in next paragraph.

It should be noted that `wrt ..imagebase` is defined as 32-bit operand only:

            dd      label wrt ..imagebase           ; ok
            dq      label wrt ..imagebase           ; bad
            mov     eax,label wrt ..imagebase       ; ok
            mov     rax,label wrt ..imagebase       ; bad

#### 7.6.2 `win64`: Structured Exception Handling

Structured exception handing in Win64 is completely different matter from Win32. Upon exception program counter value is noted, and linker-generated table comprising start and end addresses of all the functions [in given executable module] is traversed and compared to the saved program counter. Thus so called `UNWIND_INFO` structure is identified. If it's not found, then offending subroutine is assumed to be "leaf" and just mentioned lookup procedure is attempted for its caller. In Win64 leaf function is such function that does not call any other function nor modifies any Win64 non-volatile registers, including stack pointer. The latter ensures that it's possible to identify leaf function's caller by simply pulling the value from the top of the stack.

While majority of subroutines written in assembler are not calling any other function, requirement for non-volatile registers' immutability leaves developer with not more than 7 registers and no stack frame, which is not necessarily what [s]he counted with. Customarily one would meet the requirement by saving non-volatile registers on stack and restoring them upon return, so what can go wrong? If [and only if] an exception is raised at run-time and no `UNWIND_INFO` structure is associated with such "leaf" function, the stack unwind procedure will expect to find caller's return address on the top of stack immediately followed by its frame. Given that developer pushed caller's non-volatile registers on stack, would the value on top point at some code segment or even addressable space? Well, developer can attempt copying caller's return address to the top of stack and this would actually work in some very specific circumstances. But unless developer can guarantee that these circumstances are always met, it's more appropriate to assume worst case scenario, i.e. stack unwind procedure going berserk. Relevant question is what happens then? Application is abruptly terminated without any notification whatsoever. Just like in Win32 case, one can argue that system could at least have logged "unwind procedure went berserk in x.exe at address n" in event log, but no, no trace of failure is left.

Now, when we understand significance of the `UNWIND_INFO` structure, let's discuss what's in it and/or how it's processed. First of all it is checked for presence of reference to custom language-specific exception handler. If there is one, then it's invoked. Depending on the return value, execution flow is resumed (exception is said to be "handled"), or rest of `UNWIND_INFO` structure is processed as following. Beside optional reference to custom handler, it carries information about current callee's stack frame and where non-volatile registers are saved. Information is detailed enough to be able to reconstruct contents of caller's non-volatile registers upon call to current callee. And so caller's context is reconstructed, and then unwind procedure is repeated, i.e. another `UNWIND_INFO` structure is associated, this time, with caller's instruction pointer, which is then checked for presence of reference to language-specific handler, etc. The procedure is recursively repeated till exception is handled. As last resort system "handles" it by generating memory core dump and terminating the application.

As for the moment of this writing NASM unfortunately does not facilitate generation of above mentioned detailed information about stack frame layout. But as of version 2.03 it implements building blocks for generating structures involved in stack unwinding. As simplest example, here is how to deploy custom exception handler for leaf function:

    default rel
    section .text
    extern  MessageBoxA
    handler:
            sub     rsp,40
            mov     rcx,0
            lea     rdx,[text]
            lea     r8,[caption]
            mov     r9,1    ; MB_OKCANCEL
            call    MessageBoxA
            sub     eax,1   ; incidentally suits as return value
                            ; for exception handler
            add     rsp,40
            ret
    global  main
    main:
            xor     rax,rax
            mov     rax,QWORD[rax]  ; cause exception
            ret
    main_end:
    text:   db      'OK to rethrow, CANCEL to generate core dump',0
    caption:db      'SEGV',0

    section .pdata  rdata align=4
            dd      main wrt ..imagebase
            dd      main_end wrt ..imagebase
            dd      xmain wrt ..imagebase
    section .xdata  rdata align=8
    xmain:  db      9,0,0,0
            dd      handler wrt ..imagebase
    section .drectve info
            db      '/defaultlib:user32.lib /defaultlib:msvcrt.lib '

What you see in `.pdata` section is element of the "table comprising start and end addresses of function" along with reference to associated `UNWIND_INFO` structure. And what you see in `.xdata` section is `UNWIND_INFO` structure describing function with no frame, but with designated exception handler. References are required to be image-relative (which is the real reason for implementing `wrt ..imagebase` operator). It should be noted that `rdata align=n`, as well as `wrt ..imagebase`, are optional in these two segments' contexts, i.e. can be omitted. Latter means that all 32-bit references, not only above listed required ones, placed into these two segments turn out image-relative. Why is it important to understand? Developer is allowed to append handler-specific data to `UNWIND_INFO` structure, and if [s]he adds a 32-bit reference, then [s]he will have to remember to adjust its value to obtain the real pointer.

As already mentioned, in Win64 terms leaf function is one that does not call any other function nor modifies any non-volatile register, including stack pointer. But it's not uncommon that assembler programmer plans to utilize every single register and sometimes even have variable stack frame. Is there anything one can do with bare building blocks? I.e. besides manually composing fully-fledged `UNWIND_INFO` structure, which would surely be considered error-prone? Yes, there is. Recall that exception handler is called first, before stack layout is analyzed. As it turned out, it's perfectly possible to manipulate current callee's context in custom handler in manner that permits further stack unwinding. General idea is that handler would not actually "handle" the exception, but instead restore callee's context, as it was at its entry point and thus mimic leaf function. In other words, handler would simply undertake part of unwinding procedure. Consider following example:

    function:
            mov     rax,rsp         ; copy rsp to volatile register
            push    r15             ; save non-volatile registers
            push    rbx
            push    rbp
            mov     r11,rsp         ; prepare variable stack frame
            sub     r11,rcx
            and     r11,-64
            mov     QWORD[r11],rax  ; check for exceptions
            mov     rsp,r11         ; allocate stack frame
            mov     QWORD[rsp],rax  ; save original rsp value
    magic_point:
            ...
            mov     r11,QWORD[rsp]  ; pull original rsp value
            mov     rbp,QWORD[r11-24]
            mov     rbx,QWORD[r11-16]
            mov     r15,QWORD[r11-8]
            mov     rsp,r11         ; destroy frame
            ret

The keyword is that up to `magic_point` original `rsp` value remains in chosen volatile register and no non-volatile register, except for `rsp`, is modified. While past `magic_point` `rsp` remains constant till the very end of the `function`. In this case custom language-specific exception handler would look like this:

    EXCEPTION_DISPOSITION handler (EXCEPTION_RECORD *rec,ULONG64 frame,
            CONTEXT *context,DISPATCHER_CONTEXT *disp)
    {   ULONG64 *rsp;
        if (context->Rip<(ULONG64)magic_point)
            rsp = (ULONG64 *)context->Rax;
        else
        {   rsp = ((ULONG64 **)context->Rsp)[0];
            context->Rbp = rsp[-3];
            context->Rbx = rsp[-2];
            context->R15 = rsp[-1];
        }
        context->Rsp = (ULONG64)rsp;

        memcpy (disp->ContextRecord,context,sizeof(CONTEXT));
        RtlVirtualUnwind(UNW_FLAG_NHANDLER,disp->ImageBase,
            dips->ControlPc,disp->FunctionEntry,disp->ContextRecord,
            &disp->HandlerData,&disp->EstablisherFrame,NULL);
        return ExceptionContinueSearch;
    }

As custom handler mimics leaf function, corresponding `UNWIND_INFO` structure does not have to contain any information about stack frame and its layout.

### 7.7 `coff`: Common Object File Format

The `coff` output type produces `COFF` object files suitable for linking with the DJGPP linker.

`coff` provides a default output file-name extension of `.o`.

The `coff` format supports the same extensions to the `SECTION` directive as `win32` does, except that the `align` qualifier and the `info` section type are not supported.

### 7.8 `macho32` and `macho64`: Mach Object File Format

The `macho32` and `macho64` output formts produces Mach-O object files suitable for linking with the MacOS X linker. `macho` is a synonym for `macho32`.

`macho` provides a default output file-name extension of `.o`.

#### 7.8.1 `macho` extensions to the `SECTION` Directive

The `macho` output format specifies section names in the format "segment`,`section". No spaces are allowed around the comma. The following flags can also be specified:

- `data` - this section contains initialized data items
- `text` - this section contains code exclusively
- `mixed` - this section contains both code and data
- `bss` - this section is uninitialized and filled with zero
- `align=`alignment - specify section alignment

The default is `data`, unless the section name is `__text` or `__bss` in which case the default is `text` or `bss`, respectively.

For compatibility with other Unix platforms, the following standard names are also supported:

    .text    = __TEXT,__text  text
    .rodata  = __DATA,__const data
    .data    = __DATA,__data  data
    .bss     = __DATA,__bss   bss

If the `.rodata` section contains no relocations, it is instead put into the `__TEXT,__const` section unless this section has already been specified explicitly. However, it is probably better to specify `__TEXT,__const` and `__DATA,__const` explicitly as appropriate.

#### 7.8.2 Thread Local Storage in Mach-O: `macho` special symbols and `WRT`

Mach-O defines the following special symbols that can be used on the right-hand side of the `WRT` operator:

- `..tlvp` is used to specify access to thread-local storage.
- `..gotpcrel` is used to specify references to the Global Offset Table. The GOT is supported in the `macho64` format only.

### 7.9 `elf32`, `elf64`, `elfx32`: Executable and Linkable Format Object Files

The `elf32`, `elf64` and `elfx32` output formats generate `ELF32 and ELF64` (Executable and Linkable Format) object files, as used by Linux as well as Unix System V, including Solaris x86, UnixWare and SCO Unix. `elf` provides a default output file-name extension of `.o`. `elf` is a synonym for `elf32`.

The `elfx32` format is used for the x32 ABI, which is a 32-bit ABI with the CPU in 64-bit mode.

#### 7.9.1 ELF specific directive `osabi`

The ELF header specifies the application binary interface for the target operating system (OSABI). This field can be set by using the `osabi` directive with the numeric value (0-255) of the target system. If this directive is not used, the default value will be "UNIX System V ABI" (0) which will work on most systems which support ELF.

#### 7.9.2 `elf` extensions to the `SECTION` Directive

Like the `obj` format, `elf` allows you to specify additional information on the `SECTION` directive line, to control the type and properties of sections you declare. Section types and properties are generated automatically by NASM for the standard section names, but may still be overridden by these qualifiers.

The available qualifiers are:

- `alloc` defines the section to be one which is loaded into memory when the program is run. `noalloc` defines it to be one which is not, such as an informational or comment section.
- `exec` defines the section to be one which should have execute permission when the program is run. `noexec` defines it as one which should not.
- `write` defines the section to be one which should be writable when the program is run. `nowrite` defines it as one which should not.
- `progbits` defines the section to be one with explicit contents stored in the object file: an ordinary code or data section, for example, `nobits` defines the section to be one with no explicit contents given, such as a BSS section.
- `align=`, used with a trailing number as in `obj`, gives the alignment requirements of the section.
- `tls` defines the section to be one which contains thread local variables.

The defaults assumed by NASM if you do not specify the above qualifiers are:

    section .text    progbits  alloc   exec    nowrite  align=16
    section .rodata  progbits  alloc   noexec  nowrite  align=4
    section .lrodata progbits  alloc   noexec  nowrite  align=4
    section .data    progbits  alloc   noexec  write    align=4
    section .ldata   progbits  alloc   noexec  write    align=4
    section .bss     nobits    alloc   noexec  write    align=4
    section .lbss    nobits    alloc   noexec  write    align=4
    section .tdata   progbits  alloc   noexec  write    align=4    tls
    section .tbss    nobits    alloc   noexec  write    align=4    tls
    section .comment progbits  noalloc noexec  nowrite  align=1
    section other    progbits  alloc   noexec  nowrite  align=1

(Any section name other than those in the above table is treated by default like `other` in the above table. Please note that section names are case sensitive.)

#### 7.9.3 Position-Independent Code: `macho` Special Symbols and `WRT`

Since `ELF` does not support segment-base references, the `WRT` operator is not used for its normal purpose; therefore NASM's `elf` output format makes use of `WRT` for a different purpose, namely the PIC-specific relocation types.

`elf` defines five special symbols which you can use as the right-hand side of the `WRT` operator to obtain PIC relocation types. They are `..gotpc`, `..gotoff`, `..got`, `..plt` and `..sym`. Their functions are summarized here:

- Referring to the symbol marking the global offset table base using `wrt ..gotpc` will end up giving the distance from the beginning of the current section to the global offset table. (`_GLOBAL_OFFSET_TABLE_` is the standard symbol name used to refer to the GOT.) So you would then need to add `$$` to the result to get the real address of the GOT.
- Referring to a location in one of your own sections using `wrt ..gotoff` will give the distance from the beginning of the GOT to the specified location, so that adding on the address of the GOT would give the real address of the location you wanted.
- Referring to an external or global symbol using `wrt ..got` causes the linker to build an entry in the GOT containing the address of the symbol, and the reference gives the distance from the beginning of the GOT to the entry; so you can add on the address of the GOT, load from the resulting address, and end up with the address of the symbol.
- Referring to a procedure name using `wrt ..plt` causes the linker to build a procedure linkage table entry for the symbol, and the reference gives the address of the PLT entry. You can only use this in contexts which would generate a PC-relative relocation normally (i.e. as the destination for `CALL` or `JMP`), since ELF contains no relocation type to refer to PLT entries absolutely.
- Referring to a symbol name using `wrt ..sym` causes NASM to write an ordinary relocation, but instead of making the relocation relative to the start of the section and then adding on the offset to the symbol, it will write a relocation record aimed directly at the symbol in question. The distinction is a necessary one due to a peculiarity of the dynamic linker.

A fuller explanation of how to use these relocation types to write shared libraries entirely in NASM is given in section 9.2.

#### 7.9.4 Thread Local Storage in ELF: `elf` Special Symbols and `WRT`

- In ELF32 mode, referring to an external or global symbol using `wrt ..tlsie` causes the linker to build an entry in the GOT containing the offset of the symbol within the TLS block, so you can access the value of the symbol with code such as:

           mov  eax,[tid wrt ..tlsie]
           mov  [gs:eax],ebx

- In ELF64 or ELFx32 mode, referring to an external or global symbol using `wrt ..gottpoff` causes the linker to build an entry in the GOT containing the offset of the symbol within the TLS block, so you can access the value of the symbol with code such as:

           mov   rax,[rel tid wrt ..gottpoff]
           mov   rcx,[fs:rax]

#### 7.9.5 `elf` Extensions to the `GLOBAL` Directive

`ELF` object files can contain more information about a global symbol than just its address: they can contain the size of the symbol and its type as well. These are not merely debugger conveniences, but are actually necessary when the program being written is a shared library. NASM therefore supports some extensions to the `GLOBAL` directive, allowing you to specify these features.

You can specify whether a global variable is a function or a data object by suffixing the name with a colon and the word `function` or `data`. (`object` is a synonym for `data`.) For example:

    global   hashlookup:function, hashtable:data

exports the global symbol `hashlookup` as a function and `hashtable` as a data object.

Optionally, you can control the ELF visibility of the symbol. Just add one of the visibility keywords: `default`, `internal`, `hidden`, or `protected`. The default is `default` of course. For example, to make `hashlookup` hidden:

    global   hashlookup:function hidden

You can also specify the size of the data associated with the symbol, as a numeric expression (which may involve labels, and even forward references) after the type specifier. Like this:

    global  hashtable:data (hashtable.end - hashtable)

    hashtable:
            db this,that,theother  ; some data here
    .end:

This makes NASM automatically calculate the length of the table and place that information into the `ELF` symbol table.

Declaring the type and size of global symbols is necessary when writing shared library code. For more information, see section 9.2.4.

#### 7.9.6 `elf` Extensions to the `COMMON` Directive

`ELF` also allows you to specify alignment requirements on common variables. This is done by putting a number (which must be a power of two) after the name and size of the common variable, separated (as usual) by a colon. For example, an array of doublewords would benefit from 4-byte alignment:

    common  dwordarray 128:4

This declares the total size of the array to be 128 bytes, and requires that it be aligned on a 4-byte boundary.

#### 7.9.7 16-bit code and ELF

The `ELF32` specification doesn't provide relocations for 8- and 16-bit values, but the GNU `ld` linker adds these as an extension. NASM can generate GNU-compatible relocations, to allow 16-bit code to be linked as ELF using GNU `ld`. If NASM is used with the `-w+gnu-elf-extensions` option, a warning is issued when one of these relocations is generated.

#### 7.9.8 Debug formats and ELF

ELF provides debug information in `STABS` and `DWARF` formats. Line number information is generated for all executable sections, but please note that only the ".text" section is executable by default.

### 7.10 `aout`: Linux `a.out` Object Files

The `aout` format generates `a.out` object files, in the form used by early Linux systems (current Linux systems use ELF, see section 7.9.) These differ from other `a.out` object files in that the magic number in the first four bytes of the file is different; also, some implementations of `a.out`, for example NetBSD's, support position-independent code, which Linux's implementation does not.

`a.out` provides a default output file-name extension of `.o`.

`a.out` is a very simple object format. It supports no special directives, no special symbols, no use of `SEG` or `WRT`, and no extensions to any standard directives. It supports only the three standard section names `.text`, `.data` and `.bss`.

### 7.11 `aoutb`: NetBSD/FreeBSD/OpenBSD `a.out` Object Files

The `aoutb` format generates `a.out` object files, in the form used by the various free `BSD Unix` clones, `NetBSD`, `FreeBSD` and `OpenBSD`. For simple object files, this object format is exactly the same as `aout` except for the magic number in the first four bytes of the file. However, the `aoutb` format supports position-independent code in the same way as the `elf` format, so you can use it to write `BSD` shared libraries.

`aoutb` provides a default output file-name extension of `.o`.

`aoutb` supports no special directives, no special symbols, and only the three standard section names `.text`, `.data` and `.bss`. However, it also supports the same use of `WRT` as `elf` does, to provide position-independent code relocation types. See section 7.9.3 for full documentation of this feature.

`aoutb` also supports the same extensions to the `GLOBAL` directive as `elf` does: see section 7.9.5 for documentation of this.

### 7.12 `as86`: Minix/Linux `as86` Object Files

The Minix/Linux 16-bit assembler `as86` has its own non-standard object file format. Although its companion linker `ld86` produces something close to ordinary `a.out` binaries as output, the object file format used to communicate between `as86` and `ld86` is not itself `a.out`.

NASM supports this format, just in case it is useful, as `as86`. `as86` provides a default output file-name extension of `.o`.

`as86` is a very simple object format (from the NASM user's point of view). It supports no special directives, no use of `SEG` or `WRT`, and no extensions to any standard directives. It supports only the three standard section names `.text`, `.data` and `.bss`. The only special symbol supported is `..start`.

### 7.13 `rdf`: Relocatable Dynamic Object File Format

The `rdf` output format produces `RDOFF` object files. `RDOFF` (Relocatable Dynamic Object File Format) is a home-grown object-file format, designed alongside NASM itself and reflecting in its file format the internal structure of the assembler.

`RDOFF` is not used by any well-known operating systems. Those writing their own systems, however, may well wish to use `RDOFF` as their object format, on the grounds that it is designed primarily for simplicity and contains very little file-header bureaucracy.

The Unix NASM archive, and the DOS archive which includes sources, both contain an `rdoff` subdirectory holding a set of RDOFF utilities: an RDF linker, an `RDF` static-library manager, an RDF file dump utility, and a program which will load and execute an RDF executable under Linux.

`rdf` supports only the standard section names `.text`, `.data` and `.bss`.

#### 7.13.1 Requiring a Library: The `LIBRARY` Directive

`RDOFF` contains a mechanism for an object file to demand a given library to be linked to the module, either at load time or run time. This is done by the `LIBRARY` directive, which takes one argument which is the name of the module:

        library  mylib.rdl

#### 7.13.2 Specifying a Module Name: The `MODULE` Directive

Special `RDOFF` header record is used to store the name of the module. It can be used, for example, by run-time loader to perform dynamic linking. `MODULE` directive takes one argument which is the name of current module:

        module  mymodname

Note that when you statically link modules and tell linker to strip the symbols from output file, all module names will be stripped too. To avoid it, you should start module names with `$`, like:

        module  $kernel.core

#### 7.13.3 `rdf` Extensions to the `GLOBAL` Directive

`RDOFF` global symbols can contain additional information needed by the static linker. You can mark a global symbol as exported, thus telling the linker do not strip it from target executable or library file. Like in `ELF`, you can also specify whether an exported symbol is a procedure (function) or data object.

Suffixing the name with a colon and the word `export` you make the symbol exported:

        global  sys_open:export

To specify that exported symbol is a procedure (function), you add the word `proc` or `function` after declaration:

        global  sys_open:export proc

Similarly, to specify exported data object, add the word `data` or `object` to the directive:

        global  kernel_ticks:export data

#### 7.13.4 `rdf` Extensions to the `EXTERN` Directive

By default the `EXTERN` directive in `RDOFF` declares a "pure external" symbol (i.e. the static linker will complain if such a symbol is not resolved). To declare an "imported" symbol, which must be resolved later during a dynamic linking phase, `RDOFF` offers an additional `import` modifier. As in `GLOBAL`, you can also specify whether an imported symbol is a procedure (function) or data object. For example:

        library $libc
        extern  _open:import
        extern  _printf:import proc
        extern  _errno:import data

Here the directive `LIBRARY` is also included, which gives the dynamic linker a hint as to where to find requested symbols.

### 7.14 `dbg`: Debugging Format

The `dbg` output format is not built into NASM in the default configuration. If you are building your own NASM executable from the sources, you can define `OF_DBG` in `output/outform.h` or on the compiler command line, and obtain the `dbg` output format.

The `dbg` format does not output an object file as such; instead, it outputs a text file which contains a complete list of all the transactions between the main body of NASM and the output-format back end module. It is primarily intended to aid people who want to write their own output drivers, so that they can get a clearer idea of the various requests the main program makes of the output driver, and in what order they happen.

For simple files, one can easily use the `dbg` format like this:

    nasm -f dbg filename.asm

which will generate a diagnostic file called `filename.dbg`. However, this will not work well on files which were designed for a different object format, because each object format defines its own macros (usually user-level forms of directives), and those macros will not be defined in the `dbg` format. Therefore it can be useful to run NASM twice, in order to do the preprocessing with the native object format selected:

    nasm -e -f rdf -o rdfprog.i rdfprog.asm
    nasm -a -f dbg rdfprog.i

This preprocesses `rdfprog.asm` into `rdfprog.i`, keeping the `rdf` object format selected in order to make sure RDF special directives are converted into primitive form correctly. Then the preprocessed source is fed through the `dbg` format to generate the final diagnostic output.

This workaround will still typically not work for programs intended for `obj` format, because the `obj` `SEGMENT` and `GROUP` directives have side effects of defining the segment and group names as symbols; `dbg` will not do this, so the program will not assemble. You will have to work around that by defining the symbols yourself (using `EXTERN`, for example) if you really need to get a `dbg` trace of an `obj`-specific source file.

`dbg` accepts any section name and any directives at all, and logs them all to its output file.

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