\C{outfmt} \i{Output Formats}

NASM is a portable assembler, designed to be able to compile on any
ANSI C-supporting platform and produce output to run on a variety of
Intel x86 operating systems. For this reason, it has a large number
of available output formats, selected using the \i\c{-f} option on
the NASM \i{command line}. Each of these formats, along with its
extensions to the base NASM syntax, is detailed in this chapter.

As stated in \k{opt-o}, NASM chooses a \i{default name} for your
output file based on the input file name and the chosen output
format. This will be generated by removing the filename \i{extension}
(\c{.asm}, \c{.s}, or whatever you like to use) from the input file
name, and substituting an extension defined by the output format.
The extensions are given with each format below.


\H{binfmt} \i\c{bin}: \i{Flat-Form Binary}\I{pure binary} Output

The \c{bin} format does not produce object files: it generates
nothing in the output file except the code you wrote. Such `pure
binary' files are used by \i{MS-DOS}: \i\c{.COM} executables and
\i\c{.SYS} device drivers are pure binary files. Pure binary output
is also useful for \i{operating system} and \i{boot loader}
development.

The \c{bin} format supports \i{multiple section names}. For details of
how NASM handles sections in the \c{bin} format, see \k{multisec}.

Using the \c{bin} format puts NASM by default into 16-bit mode (see
\k{bits}). In order to use \c{bin} to write 32-bit or 64-bit code,
such as an OS kernel, you need to explicitly issue the \I\c{BITS}\c{BITS 32}
or \I\c{BITS}\c{BITS 64} directive.

\c{bin} has no default output file name extension: instead, it
leaves your file name as it is once the original extension has been
removed. Thus, the default is for NASM to assemble \c{binprog.asm}
into a binary file called \c{binprog}.

It is extremely important to understand that the binary output format
is simply nothing other than \e{a linker built into the NASM
executable.} As such, NASM behaves just as it does when producing any
other output format: notably the list file reflects the code output
\e{before} relocation, and the addresses in the list file are
addresses relative to the start of the current output section.


\S{org} \i\c{ORG}: Binary File \i{Program Origin}

The \c{bin} format provides an additional directive to the list
given in \k{directive}: \c{ORG}. The function of the \c{ORG}
directive is to specify the origin address which NASM will assume
the program begins at when it is loaded into memory.

For example, the following code will generate the longword
\c{0x00000104}:

\c         org     0x100
\c         dd      label
\c label:

Unlike the \c{ORG} directive provided by MASM-compatible assemblers,
which allows you to jump around in the object file and overwrite
code you have already generated, NASM's \c{ORG} does exactly what
the directive says: \e{origin}. Its sole function is to specify one
offset which is added to all internal address references within the
section; it does not permit any of the trickery that MASM's version
does. See \k{proborg} for further comments.


\S{binseg} \c{bin} Extensions to the \c{SECTION}
Directive\I{section, bin extensions to}

The \c{bin} output format extends the \c{SECTION} (or \c{SEGMENT})
directive to allow you to specify the alignment requirements of
segments. This is done by appending the \i\c{ALIGN} qualifier to the
end of the section-definition line. For example,

\c section .data   align=16

switches to the section \c{.data} and also specifies that it must be
aligned on a 16-byte boundary.

The parameter to \c{ALIGN} specifies how many low bits of the
section start address must be forced to zero. The alignment value
given may be any power of two.\I{section alignment, in
bin}\I{segment alignment, in bin}\I{alignment, in bin sections}


\S{multisec} \i{Multisection}\I{bin, multisection} Support for the \c{bin} Format

The \c{bin} format allows the use of multiple sections, of arbitrary names,
besides the "known" \c{.text}, \c{.data}, and \c{.bss} names.

\b Sections may be designated \i\c{progbits} or \i\c{nobits}. Default
is \c{progbits} (except \c{.bss}, which defaults to \c{nobits},
of course).

\b Sections can be aligned at a specified boundary following the previous
section with \c{align=}, or at an arbitrary byte-granular position with
\i\c{start=}.

\b Sections can be given a virtual start address, which will be used
for the calculation of all memory references within that section
with \i\c{vstart=}.

\b Sections can be ordered using \i\c{follows=}\c{<section>} or
\i\c{vfollows=}\c{<section>} as an alternative to specifying an explicit
start address.

\b Arguments to \c{org}, \c{start}, \c{vstart}, and \c{align=} are
critical expressions. See \k{crit}. For example, in the case of
\c{align=(1 << ALIGN_SHIFT)}, \c{ALIGN_SHIFT} must be defined before
it is used here.

\b Any code which comes before an explicit \c{SECTION} directive
is directed by default into the \c{.text} section.

\b If an \c{ORG} statement is not given, \c{ORG 0} is used
by default.

\b The \c{.bss} section will be placed after the last \c{progbits}
section, unless \c{start=}, \c{vstart=}, \c{follows=}, or \c{vfollows=}
has been specified.

\b All sections are aligned on dword boundaries, unless a different
alignment has been specified.

\b Sections may not overlap.

\b NASM creates the \c{section.<secname>.start} for each section,
which may be used in your code.

\S{map}\i{Map Files}

Map files can be generated in \c{-f bin} format by means of the \c{[map]}
option. Map types of \c{all} (default), \c{brief}, \c{sections}, \c{segments},
or \c{symbols} may be specified. Output may be directed to \c{stdout}
(default), \c{stderr}, or a specified file. E.g.
\c{[map symbols myfile.map]}. No "user form" exists, the square
brackets must be used.


\H{ithfmt} \i\c{ith}: \i{Intel Hex} Output

The \c{ith} file format produces Intel hex-format files.  Just as the
\c{bin} format, this is a flat memory image format with no support for
further relocation or linking.  It is usually used with ROM
programmers and similar utilities.

From a programmer point of view, this behaves identically to the
\c{.bin} format; the only difference is the encoding of the
output. All extensions supported by the \c{bin} file format is also
supported by the \c{ith} file format.

\c{ith} provides a default output file-name extension of \c{.ith}.


\H{srecfmt} \i\c{srec}: \i{Motorola S-Records} Output

The \c{srec} file format produces Motorola S-records files.  Just as the
\c{bin} format, this is a flat memory image format with no support for
relocation or linking.  It is usually used with ROM programmers and
similar utilities.

From a programmer point of view, this behaves identically to the
\c{.bin} format; the only difference is the encoding of the
output. All extensions supported by the \c{bin} file format is also
supported by the \c{srec} file format.

\c{srec} provides a default output file-name extension of \c{.srec}.


\H{objfmt} \i\c{obj}: \i{Microsoft OMF}\I{OMF} Object Files

The \c{obj} file format (NASM calls it \c{obj} rather than \c{omf}
for historical reasons) is the one produced by \i{MASM} and
\i{TASM}, which is typically fed to 16-bit DOS linkers to produce
\i\c{.EXE} files. It is also the format used by \i{OS/2}.

\c{obj} provides a default output file-name extension of \c{.obj}.

\c{obj} is not exclusively a 16-bit format, though; NASM has full
support for the 32-bit extensions to the format. In particular,
32-bit \c{obj} format files are used by \i{Borland's Win32
compilers}, instead of using Microsoft's newer \i\c{win32} object
file format.

The \c{obj} format does not define any special segment names: you
can call your segments anything you like. Typical names for segments
in \c{obj} format files are \c{CODE}, \c{DATA} and \c{BSS}.

If your source file contains code before specifying an explicit
\c{SEGMENT} directive, then NASM will invent its own segment called
\i\c{__NASMDEFSEG} for you.

When you define a segment in an \c{obj} file, NASM defines the
segment name as a symbol as well, so that you can access the segment
address of the segment. So, for example:

\c segment data
\c
\c dvar:   dw      1234
\c
\c segment code
\c
\c function:
\c         mov     ax,data         ; get segment address of data
\c         mov     ds,ax           ; and move it into DS
\c         inc     word [dvar]     ; now this reference will work
\c         ret

The \c{obj} format also enables the use of the \i\c{SEG} and
\i\c{WRT} operators, so that you can write code which does things
like

\c extern  foo
\c
\c       mov   ax,seg foo            ; get preferred segment of foo
\c       mov   ds,ax
\c       mov   ax,data               ; a different segment
\c       mov   es,ax
\c       mov   ax,[ds:foo]           ; this accesses `foo'
\c       mov   [es:foo wrt data],bx  ; so does this


\S{objseg} \c{obj} Extensions to the \c{SEGMENT}
Directive\I{SEGMENT, obj extensions to}

The \c{obj} output format extends the \c{SEGMENT} (or \c{SECTION})
directive to allow you to specify various properties of the segment
you are defining. This is done by appending extra qualifiers to the
end of the segment-definition line. For example,

\c segment code private align=16

defines the segment \c{code}, but also declares it to be a private
segment, and requires that the portion of it described in this code
module must be aligned on a 16-byte boundary.

The available qualifiers are:

\b \i\c{PRIVATE}, \i\c{PUBLIC}, \i\c{COMMON} and \i\c{STACK} specify
the combination characteristics of the segment. \c{PRIVATE} segments
do not get combined with any others by the linker; \c{PUBLIC} and
\c{STACK} segments get concatenated together at link time; and
\c{COMMON} segments all get overlaid on top of each other rather
than stuck end-to-end.

\b \i\c{ALIGN} is used, as shown above, to specify how many low bits
of the segment start address must be forced to zero. The alignment
value given may be any power of two from 1 to 4096; in reality, the
only values supported are 1, 2, 4, 16, 256 and 4096, so if 8 is
specified it will be rounded up to 16, and 32, 64 and 128 will all
be rounded up to 256, and so on. Note that alignment to 4096-byte
boundaries is a \i{PharLap} extension to the format and may not be
supported by all linkers.\I{section alignment, in OBJ}\I{segment
alignment, in OBJ}\I{alignment, in OBJ sections}

\b \i\c{CLASS} can be used to specify the segment class; this feature
indicates to the linker that segments of the same class should be
placed near each other in the output file. The class name can be any
word, e.g. \c{CLASS=CODE}.

\b \i\c{OVERLAY}, like \c{CLASS}, is specified with an arbitrary word
as an argument, and provides overlay information to an
overlay-capable linker.

\b Segments can be declared as \i\c{USE16} or \i\c{USE32}, which has
the effect of recording the choice in the object file and also
ensuring that NASM's default assembly mode when assembling in that
segment is 16-bit or 32-bit respectively.

\b When writing \i{OS/2} object files, you should declare 32-bit
segments as \i\c{FLAT}, which causes the default segment base for
anything in the segment to be the special group \c{FLAT}, and also
defines the group if it is not already defined.

\b The \c{obj} file format also allows segments to be declared as
having a pre-defined absolute segment address, although no linkers
are currently known to make sensible use of this feature;
nevertheless, NASM allows you to declare a segment such as
\c{SEGMENT SCREEN ABSOLUTE=0xB800} if you need to. The \i\c{ABSOLUTE}
and \c{ALIGN} keywords are mutually exclusive.

NASM's default segment attributes are \c{PUBLIC}, \c{ALIGN=1}, no
class, no overlay, and \c{USE16}.


\S{group} \i\c{GROUP}: Defining Groups of Segments\I{segments, groups of}

The \c{obj} format also allows segments to be grouped, so that a
single segment register can be used to refer to all the segments in
a group. NASM therefore supplies the \c{GROUP} directive, whereby
you can code

\c segment data
\c
\c         ; some data
\c
\c segment bss
\c
\c         ; some uninitialized data
\c
\c group dgroup data bss

which will define a group called \c{dgroup} to contain the segments
\c{data} and \c{bss}. Like \c{SEGMENT}, \c{GROUP} causes the group
name to be defined as a symbol, so that you can refer to a variable
\c{var} in the \c{data} segment as \c{var wrt data} or as \c{var wrt
dgroup}, depending on which segment value is currently in your
segment register.

If you just refer to \c{var}, however, and \c{var} is declared in a
segment which is part of a group, then NASM will default to giving
you the offset of \c{var} from the beginning of the \e{group}, not
the \e{segment}. Therefore \c{SEG var}, also, will return the group
base rather than the segment base.

NASM will allow a segment to be part of more than one group, but
will generate a warning if you do this. Variables declared in a
segment which is part of more than one group will default to being
relative to the first group that was defined to contain the segment.

A group does not have to contain any segments; you can still make
\c{WRT} references to a group which does not contain the variable
you are referring to. OS/2, for example, defines the special group
\c{FLAT} with no segments in it.


\S{uppercase} \i\c{UPPERCASE}: Disabling Case Sensitivity in Output

Although NASM itself is \i{case sensitive}, some OMF linkers are
not; therefore it can be useful for NASM to output single-case
object files. The \c{UPPERCASE} format-specific directive causes all
segment, group and symbol names that are written to the object file
to be forced to upper case just before being written. Within a
source file, NASM is still case-sensitive; but the object file can
be written entirely in upper case if desired.

\c{UPPERCASE} is used alone on a line; it requires no parameters.


\S{import} \i\c{IMPORT}: Importing DLL Symbols\I{DLL symbols,
importing}\I{symbols, importing from DLLs}

The \c{IMPORT} format-specific directive defines a symbol to be
imported from a DLL, for use if you are writing a DLL's \i{import
library} in NASM. You still need to declare the symbol as \c{EXTERN}
as well as using the \c{IMPORT} directive.

The \c{IMPORT} directive takes two required parameters, separated by
white space, which are (respectively) the name of the symbol you
wish to import and the name of the library you wish to import it
from. For example:

\c     import  WSAStartup wsock32.dll

A third optional parameter gives the name by which the symbol is
known in the library you are importing it from, in case this is not
the same as the name you wish the symbol to be known by to your code
once you have imported it. For example:

\c     import  asyncsel wsock32.dll WSAAsyncSelect


\S{export} \i\c{EXPORT}: Exporting DLL Symbols\I{DLL symbols,
exporting}\I{symbols, exporting from DLLs}

The \c{EXPORT} format-specific directive defines a global symbol to
be exported as a DLL symbol, for use if you are writing a DLL in
NASM. You still need to declare the symbol as \c{GLOBAL} as well as
using the \c{EXPORT} directive.

\c{EXPORT} takes one required parameter, which is the name of the
symbol you wish to export, as it was defined in your source file. An
optional second parameter (separated by white space from the first)
gives the \e{external} name of the symbol: the name by which you
wish the symbol to be known to programs using the DLL. If this name
is the same as the internal name, you may leave the second parameter
off.

Further parameters can be given to define attributes of the exported
symbol. These parameters, like the second, are separated by white
space. If further parameters are given, the external name must also
be specified, even if it is the same as the internal name. The
available attributes are:

\b \c{resident} indicates that the exported name is to be kept
resident by the system loader. This is an optimization for
frequently used symbols imported by name.

\b \c{nodata} indicates that the exported symbol is a function which
does not make use of any initialized data.

\b \c{parm=NNN}, where \c{NNN} is an integer, sets the number of
parameter words for the case in which the symbol is a call gate
between 32-bit and 16-bit segments.

\b An attribute which is just a number indicates that the symbol
should be exported with an identifying number (ordinal), and gives
the desired number.

For example:

\c     export  myfunc
\c     export  myfunc TheRealMoreFormalLookingFunctionName
\c     export  myfunc myfunc 1234  ; export by ordinal
\c     export  myfunc myfunc resident parm=23 nodata


\S{dotdotstart} \i\c{..start}: Defining the \i{Program Entry
Point}

\c{OMF} linkers require exactly one of the object files being linked to
define the program entry point, where execution will begin when the
program is run. If the object file that defines the entry point is
assembled using NASM, you specify the entry point by declaring the
special symbol \c{..start} at the point where you wish execution to
begin.


\S{objextern} \c{obj} Extensions to the \c{EXTERN}
Directive\I{EXTERN, obj extensions to}

If you declare an external symbol with the directive

\c     extern  foo

then references such as \c{mov ax,foo} will give you the offset of
\c{foo} from its preferred segment base (as specified in whichever
module \c{foo} is actually defined in). So to access the contents of
\c{foo} you will usually need to do something like

\c         mov     ax,seg foo      ; get preferred segment base
\c         mov     es,ax           ; move it into ES
\c         mov     ax,[es:foo]     ; and use offset `foo' from it

This is a little unwieldy, particularly if you know that an external
is going to be accessible from a given segment or group, say
\c{dgroup}. So if \c{DS} already contained \c{dgroup}, you could
simply code

\c         mov     ax,[foo wrt dgroup]

However, having to type this every time you want to access \c{foo}
can be a pain; so NASM allows you to declare \c{foo} in the
alternative form

\c     extern  foo:wrt dgroup

This form causes NASM to pretend that the preferred segment base of
\c{foo} is in fact \c{dgroup}; so the expression \c{seg foo} will
now return \c{dgroup}, and the expression \c{foo} is equivalent to
\c{foo wrt dgroup}.

This \I{default-WRT mechanism}default-\c{WRT} mechanism can be used
to make externals appear to be relative to any group or segment in
your program. It can also be applied to common variables: see
\k{objcommon}.


\S{objcommon} \c{obj} Extensions to the \c{COMMON}
Directive\I{COMMON, obj extensions to}

The \c{obj} format allows common variables to be either near\I{near
common variables} or far\I{far common variables}; NASM allows you to
specify which your variables should be by the use of the syntax

\c common  nearvar 2:near   ; `nearvar' is a near common
\c common  farvar  10:far   ; and `farvar' is far

Far common variables may be greater in size than 64Kb, and so the
OMF specification says that they are declared as a number of
\e{elements} of a given size. So a 10-byte far common variable could
be declared as ten one-byte elements, five two-byte elements, two
five-byte elements or one ten-byte element.

Some \c{OMF} linkers require the \I{element size, in common
variables}\I{common variables, element size}element size, as well as
the variable size, to match when resolving common variables declared
in more than one module. Therefore NASM must allow you to specify
the element size on your far common variables. This is done by the
following syntax:

\c common  c_5by2  10:far 5        ; two five-byte elements
\c common  c_2by5  10:far 2        ; five two-byte elements

If no element size is specified, the default is 1. Also, the \c{FAR}
keyword is not required when an element size is specified, since
only far commons may have element sizes at all. So the above
declarations could equivalently be

\c common  c_5by2  10:5            ; two five-byte elements
\c common  c_2by5  10:2            ; five two-byte elements

In addition to these extensions, the \c{COMMON} directive in \c{obj}
also supports default-\c{WRT} specification like \c{EXTERN} does
(explained in \k{objextern}). So you can also declare things like

\c common  foo     10:wrt dgroup
\c common  bar     16:far 2:wrt data
\c common  baz     24:wrt data:6


\S{objdepend} Embedded File Dependency Information

Since NASM 2.13.02, \c{obj} files contain embedded dependency file
information.  To suppress the generation of dependencies, use

\c %pragma obj nodepend


\H{win32fmt} \i\c{win32}: Microsoft Win32 Object Files

The \c{win32} output format generates Microsoft Win32 object files,
suitable for passing to Microsoft linkers such as \i{Visual C++}.
Note that Borland Win32 compilers do not use this format, but use
\c{obj} instead (see \k{objfmt}).

\c{win32} provides a default output file-name extension of \c{.obj}.

Note that although Microsoft say that Win32 object files follow the
\c{COFF} (Common Object File Format) standard, the object files produced
by Microsoft Win32 compilers are not compatible with COFF linkers
such as DJGPP's, and vice versa. This is due to a difference of
opinion over the precise semantics of PC-relative relocations. To
produce COFF files suitable for DJGPP, use NASM's \c{coff} output
format; conversely, the \c{coff} format does not produce object
files that Win32 linkers can generate correct output from.


\S{win32sect} \c{win32} Extensions to the \c{SECTION}
Directive\I{SECTION, Windows extensions to}

Like the \c{obj} format, \c{win32} allows you to specify additional
information on the \c{SECTION} directive line, to control the type
and properties of sections you declare. Section types and properties
are generated automatically by NASM for the \i{standard section names}
\c{.text}, \c{.data} and \c{.bss}, but may still be overridden by
these qualifiers.

The available qualifiers are:

\b \c{code}, or equivalently \c{text}, defines the section to be a
code section. This marks the section as readable and executable, but
not writable, and also indicates to the linker that the type of the
section is code.

\b \c{data} and \c{bss} define the section to be a data section,
analogously to \c{code}. Data sections are marked as readable and
writable, but not executable. \c{data} declares an initialized data
section, whereas \c{bss} declares an uninitialized data section.

\b \c{rdata} declares an initialized data section that is readable
but not writable. Microsoft compilers use this section to place
constants in it.

\b \c{info} defines the section to be an \i{informational section},
which is not included in the executable file by the linker, but may
(for example) pass information \e{to} the linker. For example,
declaring an \c{info}-type section called \i\c{.drectve} causes the
linker to interpret the contents of the section as command-line
options.

\b \c{align=}, used with a trailing number as in \c{obj}, gives the
\I{section alignment, in win32}\I{alignment, in win32
sections}alignment requirements of the section. The maximum you may
specify is 64: the Win32 object file format contains no means to
request a greater section alignment than this. If alignment is not
explicitly specified, the defaults are 16-byte alignment for code
sections, 8-byte alignment for rdata sections and 4-byte alignment
for data (and BSS) sections.
Informational sections get a default alignment of 1 byte (no
alignment), though the value does not matter.

\b \I{comdat, win32 attribute}\c{comdat=}, followed by a number
("selection"), colon (acting as a separator) and a name,
marks the section as a \I{COMDAT section, in win32}"COMDAT section".
It allows Microsoft linkers to perform function-level linking,
to deal with multiply defined symbols, to eliminate dead code/data.

The "selection" number should be one of the
\c{IMAGE_COMDAT_SELECT_*} constants from
\W{https://github.com/MicrosoftDocs/win32/blob/docs/desktop-src/Debug/pe-format.md#comdat-sections-object-only}\c{COFF format specification};
this value controls if the linker allows multiply defined symbols
and how it handles them.

The name is the \I{COMDAT symbol, in win32}"COMDAT symbol"
- basically a new name for the section. So even though you have one
section given by the main name (e.g. \c{.text}), it can actually
consist of hundreds of COMDAT sections having their own name
(and alignment).

When the "selection" is IMAGE_COMDAT_SELECT_ASSOCIATIVE (5),
the following name is the "COMDAT symbol" of the associated COMDAT
section; this way you can link a piece of code or data only when
another piece of code or data gets actually linked.

\> So, when linking a NASM-compiled file with some C code,
the source may be structured as follows.
Note that the default \c{.text} section in handled in a special
way and it doesn't work well with \c{comdat}; you may want to append
a \c{$} character and an arbitrary suffix to the section name.
It will get linked into the \c{.text} section anyway - see the info on
\W{https://github.com/MicrosoftDocs/win32/blob/docs/desktop-src/Debug/pe-format.md#grouped-sections-object-only}\c{Grouped Sections}.

\c    section .text$1 align=16 comdat=1:FirstFnc
\c       ...                                        ; Code linked only if referenced from C
\c
\c    section .text$1 align=16 comdat=1:SecondFnc
\c       ...                                        ; Code linked only if referenced from C
\c
\c    section .rdata align=32 comdat=5:FirstFnc
\c       ...                                        ; Data linked only if the related code (FirstFnc) is linked
\c

The defaults assumed by NASM if you do not specify the above
qualifiers are:

\c section .text    code  align=16
\c section .data    data  align=4
\c section .rdata   rdata align=8
\c section .bss     bss   align=4

The \c{win64} format also adds:

\c section .pdata   rdata align=4
\c section .xdata   rdata align=8

Any other section name is treated by default like \c{.text}.

\S{win32safeseh} \c{win32}: Safe Structured Exception Handling

Among other improvements in Windows XP SP2 and Windows Server 2003,
Microsoft has introduced the concept of "safe structured exception
handling." The general idea is to collect handlers' entry points
in a designated read-only table and have SEH entry points verified
against this table before exception control is passed to the
corresponding handler. In order for an executable module to be
equipped with this read-only table, all object modules on linker
command line have to comply with certain criteria. If even a single
module among them does not, then the table in question is omitted
and above mentioned run-time checks will not be performed for the
application in question. Table omission is silent by default and
therefore can be easily missed. One can instruct the linker to
refuse to produce binary without such table by passing the
\c{/safeseh} command line option.

Without regard to this run-time check, it's natural to expect
NASM to be capable of generating modules suitable for \c{/safeseh}
linking. From the developer's viewpoint the problem is two-fold:

\b how to adapt modules not deploying exception handlers of their own;

\b how to adapt/develop modules utilizing custom exception handling;

The former can be easily achieved with any NASM version by adding the
following line to the source code:

\c $@feat.00 equ 1

As of version 2.03 NASM adds this absolute symbol automatically, if
it is not already present (in which case the developer can choose to
assign another value, if desired, for whatever reason).

Registering a custom exception handler on the other hand requires
certain "magic." As of version 2.03, an additional \c{safeseh} directive
is implemented, which instructs the assembler to produce appropriately
formatted input data for the above-mentioned "safe exception handler
table." Its typical use would be:

\c section .text
\c extern  _MessageBoxA@16
\c %if     __?NASM_VERSION_ID?__ >= 0x02030000
\c safeseh handler         ; register handler as "safe handler"
\c %endif
\c handler:
\c         push    DWORD 1 ; MB_OKCANCEL
\c         push    DWORD caption
\c         push    DWORD text
\c         push    DWORD 0
\c         call    _MessageBoxA@16
\c         sub     eax,1   ; incidentally suits as return value
\c                         ; for exception handler
\c         ret
\c global  _main
\c _main:
\c         push    DWORD handler
\c         push    DWORD [fs:0]
\c         mov     DWORD [fs:0],esp ; engage exception handler
\c         xor     eax,eax
\c         mov     eax,DWORD[eax]   ; cause exception
\c         pop     DWORD [fs:0]     ; disengage exception handler
\c         add     esp,4
\c         ret
\c text:   db      'OK to rethrow, CANCEL to generate core dump',0
\c caption:db      'SEGV',0
\c
\c section .drectve info
\c         db      '/defaultlib:user32.lib /defaultlib:msvcrt.lib '

As you might imagine, it's perfectly possible to produce an .exe binary
with the "safe exception handler table" and yet invoke an unregistered
exception handler. A handler is invoked by manipulating \c{[fs:0]}
at run-time, something the linker has no power over. It is therefore
important to note that such failure to register a handler's entry point
with the \c{safeseh} directive will have undesired side effects at
run-time. If an exception is raised and an unregistered handler is to be
executed, the application is abruptly terminated without any notification
whatsoever. One can argue that the system should at least log some kind
of "non-safe exception handler in x.exe at address n" message in the
event log, but unfortunately the user is left without any clue as to
what might have caused the crash.

Finally, all mentions of linker in this paragraph refer to Microsoft
linker version 7.x and later. Presence of \c{@feat.00} symbol and input
data for "safe exception handler table" causes no backward
incompatibilities and "safeseh" modules generated by NASM 2.03 and
later can still be linked by earlier versions or non-Microsoft linkers.

\S{codeview} Debugging formats for Windows
\I{Windows debugging formats}

The \c{win32} and \c{win64} formats support the Microsoft \i{CodeView
debugging format}.  Currently CodeView version 8 format is supported
(\i\c{cv8}), but newer versions of the CodeView debugger should be
able to handle this format as well.


\H{win64fmt} \i\c{win64}: Microsoft Win64 Object Files

The \c{win64} output format generates Microsoft Win64 object files,
which is nearly 100% identical to the \c{win32} object format (\k{win32fmt})
with the exception that it is meant to target 64-bit code and the x86-64
platform altogether. This object file is used exactly the same as the \c{win32}
object format (\k{win32fmt}), in NASM, with regard to this exception.

\S{win64pic} \c{win64}: Writing Position-Independent Code

While \c{REL} takes good care of RIP-relative addressing, there is one
aspect that is easy to overlook for a Win64 programmer: indirect
references. Consider a switch dispatch table:

\c         jmp     qword [dsptch+rax*8]
\c         ...
\c dsptch: dq      case0
\c         dq      case1
\c         ...

Even a novice Win64 assembler programmer will soon realize that the code
is not 64-bit savvy. Most notably the linker will refuse to link it, showing:

\c 'ADDR32' relocation to '.text' invalid without /LARGEADDRESSAWARE:NO

So [s]he will have to split jmp instruction as following:

\c         lea     rbx,[rel dsptch]
\c         jmp     qword [rbx+rax*8]

What happens behind the scenes is that the effective address in \c{lea}
is encoded relative to instruction pointer, in a perfectly
position-independent manner. But this is only part of the problem!
The issue is that in a .dll context, the \c{caseN} relocations will make
their way to the final module and might have to be adjusted at .dll load
time (specifically, when it can't be loaded at the preferred address).
When this occurs, pages with such relocations will be rendered private
to current process, which kind of undermines the idea of a shared .dll.
But not to worry, it's trivial to fix:

\c         lea     rbx,[rel dsptch]
\c         add     rbx,[rbx+rax*8]
\c         jmp     rbx
\c         ...
\c dsptch: dq      case0-dsptch
\c         dq      case1-dsptch
\c         ...

NASM version 2.03 and later provides another alternative, \c{wrt
..imagebase} operator, which returns an offset from base address of the
current image, be it .exe or .dll module, hence the name. For those
acquainted with PE-COFF format, this base address denotes the start of
the \c{IMAGE_DOS_HEADER} structure. Here is how to implement a switch
statement with these image-relative references:

\c         lea     rbx,[rel dsptch]
\c         mov     eax,[rbx+rax*4]
\c         sub     rbx,dsptch wrt ..imagebase
\c         add     rbx,rax
\c         jmp     rbx
\c         ...
\c dsptch: dd      case0 wrt ..imagebase
\c         dd      case1 wrt ..imagebase

That said, the snippet before last works just fine with any NASM version
and is not even Windows specific, which makes this operator unnecessary
in this case. The real reason for the \c{wrt ..imagebase} operator will
become apparent in the next section.

It should be noted that \c{wrt ..imagebase} is defined as 32-bit
operand only:

\c         dd      label wrt ..imagebase           ; ok
\c         dq      label wrt ..imagebase           ; bad
\c         mov     eax,label wrt ..imagebase       ; ok
\c         mov     rax,label wrt ..imagebase       ; bad

\S{win64seh} \c{win64}: Structured Exception Handling

Structured exception handing in Win64 is completely different compared
to Win32. When an exception occurs, the program counter is noted, and a
linker-generated table containing start and end addresses of all the
functions (in a given executable module) is traversed and compared to
the saved program counter. This is used to identify the corresponding
\c{UNWIND_INFO} structure. If missing, then the offending subroutine is
assumed to be "leaf" and this lookup procedure is instead attempted for
its caller. In Win64, a leaf function is a function that does not call
any other functions \e{nor} modifies any Win64 non-volatile registers,
including the stack pointer. The latter ensures that it's possible to
identify a leaf function's caller by simply pulling the value from the
top of the stack.

While the majority of subroutines written in assembler are not calling
any other functions, they may not qualify as "leaf" functions in the
Win64 sense. The requirement for non-volatile registers to be
unchanged leaves the developer with not more than 7 registers and no
stack frame, which is not necessarily what they counted on.
Customarily one would meet this requirement by saving non-volatile
registers on stack and restoring them upon return. However, if (and
only if) an exception is raised at run-time and no \c{UNWIND_INFO}
structure is associated with such a "leaf" function, the stack unwind
procedure will expect to find the caller's return address on the top of
the stack immediately followed by its frame. Given that the developer
pushed the caller's non-volatile registers onto the stack, the value
on top will no longer point to the right place. The developer can
attempt to copy the caller's return address to the top of stack, which
would work in some very specific circumstances. But unless the
developer can guarantee that these circumstances are always met, it's
more appropriate to assume the worst, i.e. the stack unwind procedure
goes berserk, abruptly terminating without any notification whatsoever
(just like in the the Win32 case).

Now that we understand significance of the \c{UNWIND_INFO} structure,
let us discuss what is in it and how it is processed. First, it is
checked for the presence of a reference to a custom language-specific
exception handler. If there is one, then it is invoked. Depending on
the return value, execution flow is resumed (exception is said to be
"handled"), \e{or} the rest of the \c{UNWIND_INFO} structure is
processed as follows. Aside from an optional reference to a custom
handler, it carries information about the current callee's stack frame
and where non-volatile registers are saved. The information is detailed
enough to be able to reconstruct the contents of the caller's
non-volatile registers on entry to the current callee. And so the
caller's context is reconstructed, at which point the unwind procedure
is repeated, using the \c{UNWIND_INFO} structure associated with the
caller's instruction pointer. The procedure is repeated recursively
until the exception is handled. As a last resort, the system "handles"
it by generating a memory dump and terminating the application.

As of this writing, NASM unfortunately does not facilitate generation
of above mentioned detailed information about stack frame layout. But
as of version 2.03, it implements building blocks for generating
structures involved in stack unwinding. Here is a simple example
showing how to deploy a custom exception handler for a leaf function:

\c default rel
\c section .text
\c extern  MessageBoxA
\c handler:
\c         sub     rsp,40
\c         mov     rcx,0
\c         lea     rdx,[text]
\c         lea     r8,[caption]
\c         mov     r9,1    ; MB_OKCANCEL
\c         call    MessageBoxA
\c         sub     eax,1   ; incidentally suits as return value
\c                         ; for exception handler
\c         add     rsp,40
\c         ret
\c global  main
\c main:
\c         xor     rax,rax
\c         mov     rax,QWORD[rax]  ; cause exception
\c         ret
\c main_end:
\c text:   db      'OK to rethrow, CANCEL to generate core dump',0
\c caption:db      'SEGV',0
\c
\c section .pdata  rdata align=4
\c         dd      main wrt ..imagebase
\c         dd      main_end wrt ..imagebase
\c         dd      xmain wrt ..imagebase
\c section .xdata  rdata align=8
\c xmain:  db      9,0,0,0
\c         dd      handler wrt ..imagebase
\c section .drectve info
\c         db      '/defaultlib:user32.lib /defaultlib:msvcrt.lib '

What you see is that the \c{.pdata} section contains a single-element
table, containing function start and end addresses, along with references
to associated \c{UNWIND_INFO} structures (only one in this case). The
\c{.xdata} section contains the referenced \c{UNWIND_INFO} structure,
describing a function with no frame, but with a designated exception handler.
These references are \e{required} to be image-relative, which is the real
reason for implementing the \c{wrt ..imagebase} operator). It should be
noted that \c{rdata align=n}, as well as \c{wrt ..imagebase}, are actually
optional in the context of these two segments (they apply even when omitted);
\e{all} 32-bit references placed into these two segments will be image-relative.
This is important to understand, as the developer is allowed to append
handler-specific data to the \c{UNWIND_INFO} structure, and any 32-bit
references that are added may require adjustment to obtain the real pointer.

As already mentioned, in Win64 terms, a leaf function is one that neither
calls any other function \e{nor} modifies any non-volatile registers,
including the stack pointer. But it is not uncommon for the programmer
to intend to utilize every single register and sometimes even have a
variable stack frame, requiring a more complicated \c{UNWIND_INFO} structure
than in the example above. Is there anything one can do with these simpler
building blocks, and avoid manually composing fully-fledged \c{UNWIND_INFO}
structures, which would surely be considered error-prone? Yes, there is.
Recall that an exception handler is called first, before the stack layout
is analyzed. As it turns out, it is perfectly possible to manipulate
current callee's context in a custom handler in a manner that permits
further stack unwinding. The general idea is that handler would not
actually "handle" the exception, but instead restore the callee's context
(restore to state at entry point) and thus mimic a Win64 leaf function.
In other words, the handler would effectively undertake part of the
unwinding procedure. Consider the following example:

\c function:
\c         mov     rax,rsp         ; copy rsp to volatile register
\c         push    r15             ; save non-volatile registers
\c         push    rbx
\c         push    rbp
\c         mov     r11,rsp         ; prepare variable stack frame
\c         sub     r11,rcx
\c         and     r11,-64
\c         mov     QWORD[r11],rax  ; check for exceptions
\c         mov     rsp,r11         ; allocate stack frame
\c         mov     QWORD[rsp],rax  ; save original rsp value
\c magic_point:
\c         ...
\c         mov     r11,QWORD[rsp]  ; pull original rsp value
\c         mov     rbp,QWORD[r11-24]
\c         mov     rbx,QWORD[r11-16]
\c         mov     r15,QWORD[r11-8]
\c         mov     rsp,r11         ; destroy frame
\c         ret

The key is that until \c{magic_point}, the original \c{rsp} value
remains in the chosen volatile register, and no non-volatile register
except for \c{rsp} is modified. After \c{magic_point}, \c{rsp} remains
constant till the very end of the \c{function}. In this case a custom
language-specific exception handler would look like this:

\c EXCEPTION_DISPOSITION handler (EXCEPTION_RECORD *rec,ULONG64 frame,
\c         CONTEXT *context,DISPATCHER_CONTEXT *disp)
\c {   ULONG64 *rsp;
\c     if (context->Rip<(ULONG64)magic_point)
\c         rsp = (ULONG64 *)context->Rax;
\c     else
\c     {   rsp = ((ULONG64 **)context->Rsp)[0];
\c         context->Rbp = rsp[-3];
\c         context->Rbx = rsp[-2];
\c         context->R15 = rsp[-1];
\c     }
\c     context->Rsp = (ULONG64)rsp;
\c
\c     memcpy (disp->ContextRecord,context,sizeof(CONTEXT));
\c     RtlVirtualUnwind(UNW_FLAG_NHANDLER,disp->ImageBase,
\c         dips->ControlPc,disp->FunctionEntry,disp->ContextRecord,
\c         &disp->HandlerData,&disp->EstablisherFrame,NULL);
\c     return ExceptionContinueSearch;
\c }

As this custom handler allows the example function to mimic a Win64 leaf
function, the corresponding \c{UNWIND_INFO} structure does not need to
contain any information about the stack frame and its layout.

\H{cofffmt} \i\c{coff}: \i{Common Object File Format}

The \c{coff} output type produces \c{COFF} object files suitable for
linking with the \i{DJGPP} linker.

\c{coff} provides a default output file-name extension of \c{.o}.

The \c{coff} format supports the same extensions to the \c{SECTION}
directive as \c{win32} does, except that the \c{align} qualifier and
the \c{info} section type are not supported.

\H{machofmt} \I{Mach-O}\i\c{macho32} and \i\c{macho64}: \i{Mach Object File Format}

The \c{macho32} and \c{macho64} output formts produces Mach-O
object files suitable for linking with the \i{MacOS X} linker.
\i\c{macho} is a synonym for \c{macho32}.

\c{macho} provides a default output file-name extension of \c{.o}.

\S{machosect} \c{macho} extensions to the \c{SECTION} Directive
\I{SECTION, macho extensions to}

The \c{macho} output format specifies section names in the format
"\e{segment}\c{,}\e{section}".  No spaces are allowed around the
comma.  The following flags can also be specified:

\b \c{data} - this section contains initialized data items

\b \c{code} - this section contains code exclusively

\b \c{mixed} - this section contains both code and data

\b \c{bss} - this section is uninitialized and filled with zero

\b \c{zerofill} - same as \c{bss}

\b \c{no_dead_strip} - inhibit dead code stripping for this section

\b \c{live_support} - set the live support flag for this section

\b \c{strip_static_syms} - strip static symbols for this section

\b \c{debug} - this section contains debugging information

\b \c{align=}\e{alignment} - specify section alignment

The default is \c{data}, unless the section name is \c{__text} or
\c{__bss} in which case the default is \c{text} or \c{bss},
respectively.

For compatibility with other Unix platforms, the following standard
names are also supported:

\c .text    = __TEXT,__text  text
\c .rodata  = __DATA,__const data
\c .data    = __DATA,__data  data
\c .bss     = __DATA,__bss   bss

If the \c{.rodata} section contains no relocations, it is instead put
into the \c{__TEXT,__const} section unless this section has already
been specified explicitly.  However, it is probably better to specify
\c{__TEXT,__const} and \c{__DATA,__const} explicitly as appropriate.

\S{machotls} \i{Thread Local Storage in Mach-O}\I{TLS}: \c{macho} special
symbols and \i\c{WRT}

Mach-O defines the following special symbols that can be used on the
right-hand side of the \c{WRT} operator:

\b \c{..tlvp} is used to specify access to thread-local storage.

\b \c{..gotpcrel} is used to specify references to the Global Offset
   Table.  The GOT is supported in the \c{macho64} format only.

\S{macho-ssvs} \c{macho} specific directive \i\c{subsections_via_symbols}

The directive \c{subsections_via_symbols} sets the
\c{MH_SUBSECTIONS_VIA_SYMBOLS} flag in the Mach-O header, that effectively
separates a block (or a subsection) based on a symbol. It is often used
for eliminating dead codes by a linker.

This directive takes no arguments.

This is a macro implemented as a \c{%pragma}.  It can also be
specified in its \c{%pragma} form, in which case it will not affect
non-Mach-O builds of the same source code:

\c      %pragma macho subsections_via_symbols

\S{macho-ssvs} \c{macho} specific directive \i\c{no_dead_strip}

The directive \c{no_dead_strip} sets the Mach-O \c{SH_NO_DEAD_STRIP}
section flag on the section containing a a specific symbol.  This
directive takes a list of symbols as its arguments.

This is a macro implemented as a \c{%pragma}.  It can also be
specified in its \c{%pragma} form, in which case it will not affect
non-Mach-O builds of the same source code:

\c      %pragma macho no_dead_strip symbol...

\S{macho-pext} \c{macho} specific extensions to the \c{GLOBAL}
Directive: \i\c{private_extern}

The directive extension to \c{GLOBAL} marks the symbol with limited
global scope. For example, you can specify the global symbol with
this extension:

\c global foo:private_extern
\c foo:
\c          ; codes

Using with static linker will clear the private extern attribute.
But linker option like \c{-keep_private_externs} can avoid it.

\S{macho-bver} \c{macho} specific directive \i\c{build_version}

The directive \c{build_version} generates a \c{LC_BUILD_VERSION}
load command in the Mach-O header, which allows specifying a
target platform, minimum OS version and optionally SDK version.
Newer Xcode linker versions warn if this is not present in object
files.

This directive takes the target platform name and minimum OS
version as arguments, in this form:

\c build_version macos,10,7

Platform names that make sense for x86 code are \c{macos},
\c{iossimulator}, \c{tvossimulator} and \c{watchossimulator}.

Optionally, a trailing version number and minimum SDK version
can also be specified with this syntax:

\c build_version macos, 10, 14, 0 sdk_version 10, 14, 0

This is a macro implemented as a \c{%pragma}. It can also be
specified in its \c{%pragma} form, in which case it will not
affect non-Mach-O builds of the same source code:

\c      %pragma macho build_version ...

This latter form is also useful on the command line when using
the \c{--pragma} command-line switch:

\c      nasm -f macho64 --pragma "macho build_version macos,10,9" ...

\H{elffmt} \i\c{elf32}, \i\c{elf64}, \i\c{elfx32}:
\I{ELF}\I{linux, elf}Executable and Linkable Format Object Files

The \c{elf32}, \c{elf64} and \c{elfx32} output formats generate
\c{ELF32} and \c{ELF64} (Executable and Linkable Format) object files, as
used by \i{Linux} as well as \i{Unix System V}, including \i{Solaris x86},
\i{UnixWare} and \i{SCO Unix}. ELF provides a default output
file-name extension of \c{.o}. \c{elf} is a synonym for \c{elf32}.

The \c{elfx32} file format is an ELF32 file containing 64-bit x86
code, and is used for the \i{x32} ABI, which runs the CPU in 64-bit
mode while using 32-bit values for pointers to reduce memory
footprint. Thus, code intended to be used with the x32 ABI should be
assembled with \c{BITS 64}.

\S{abisect} ELF specific directive \i\c{osabi}

The ELF header specifies the application binary interface for the
target operating system (OSABI).  This field can be set by using the
\c{osabi} directive with the numeric value (0-255) of the target
system. If this directive is not used, the default value will be "UNIX
System V ABI" (0) which will work on most systems which support ELF.

\S{elfsect} ELF extensions to the \c{SECTION} Directive
\I{SECTION, ELF extensions to}

Like the \c{obj} format, \c{elf} allows you to specify additional
information on the \c{SECTION} directive line, to control the type
and properties of sections you declare. Section types and properties
are generated automatically by NASM for the \i{standard section
names}, but may still be
overridden by these qualifiers.

The available qualifiers are:

\b \i\c{alloc} defines the section to be one which is loaded into
memory when the program is run. \i\c{noalloc} defines it to be one
which is not, such as an informational or comment section.

\b \i\c{exec} defines the section to be one which should have execute
permission when the program is run. \i\c{noexec} defines it as one
which should not.

\b \i\c{write} defines the section to be one which should be writable
when the program is run. \i\c{nowrite} defines it as one which should
not.

\b \i\c{progbits} defines the section to be one with explicit contents
stored in the object file: an ordinary code or data section, for
example.

\b \i\c{nobits} defines the section to be one with no explicit
contents given, such as a BSS section.

\b \i\c{note} indicates that this section contains ELF notes. The
content of ELF notes are specified using normal assembly instructions;
it is up to the programmer to ensure these are valid ELF notes.

\b \i\c{preinit_array} indicates that this section contains function
addresses to be called before any other initialization has happened.

\b \i\c{init_array} indicates that this section contains function
addresses to be called during initialization.

\b \i\c{fini_array} indicates that this section contains function
pointers to be called during termination.

\b \I{align, ELF attribute}\c{align=}, used with a trailing number as in \c{obj}, gives the
\I{section alignment, in elf}\I{alignment, in elf sections}alignment
requirements of the section.

\b \c{byte}, \c{word}, \c{dword}, \c{qword}, \c{tword}, \c{oword},
\c{yword}, or \c{zword} with an optional \c{*}\i{multiplier} specify
the fundamental data item size for a section which contains either
fixed-sized data structures or strings; it also sets a default
alignment. This is generally used with the \c{strings} and \c{merge}
attributes (see below.) For example \c{byte*4} defines a unit size of
4 bytes, with a default alignment of 1; \c{dword} also defines a unit
size of 4 bytes, but with a default alignment of 4. The \c{align=}
attribute, if specified, overrides this default alignment.

\b \I{pointer, ELF attribute}\c{pointer} is equivalent to \c{dword}
for \c{elf32} or \c{elfx32}, and \c{qword} for \c{elf64}.

\b \I{strings, ELF attribute}\c{strings} indicate that this section
contains exclusively null-terminated strings. By default these are
assumed to be byte strings, but a size specifier can be used to
override that.

\b \i\c{merge} indicates that duplicate data elements in this section
should be merged with data elements from other object files. Data
elements can be either fixed-sized objects or null-terminated strings
(with the \c{strings} attribute). A size specifier is required unless
\c{strings} is specified, in which case the size defaults to \c{byte}.

\b \i\c{tls} defines the section to be one which contains
thread local variables.

The defaults assumed by NASM if you do not specify the above
qualifiers are:

\I\c{.text} \I\c{.rodata} \I\c{.lrodata} \I\c{.data} \I\c{.ldata}
\I\c{.bss} \I\c{.lbss} \I\c{.tdata} \I\c{.tbss} \I\c\{.comment}

\c section .text          progbits      alloc   exec    nowrite  align=16
\c section .rodata        progbits      alloc   noexec  nowrite  align=4
\c section .lrodata       progbits      alloc   noexec  nowrite  align=4
\c section .data          progbits      alloc   noexec  write    align=4
\c section .ldata         progbits      alloc   noexec  write    align=4
\c section .bss           nobits        alloc   noexec  write    align=4
\c section .lbss          nobits        alloc   noexec  write    align=4
\c section .tdata         progbits      alloc   noexec  write    align=4   tls
\c section .tbss          nobits        alloc   noexec  write    align=4   tls
\c section .comment       progbits      noalloc noexec  nowrite  align=1
\c section .preinit_array preinit_array alloc   noexec  nowrite  pointer
\c section .init_array    init_array    alloc   noexec  nowrite  pointer
\c section .fini_array    fini_array    alloc   noexec  nowrite  pointer
\c section .note          note          noalloc noexec  nowrite  align=4
\c section other          progbits      alloc   noexec  nowrite  align=1

(Any section name other than those in the above table
 is treated by default like \c{other} in the above table.
 Please note that section names are case sensitive.)


\S{elfwrt} \i{Position-Independent Code}\I{PIC}: ELF Special
Symbols and \i\c{WRT}

Since \c{ELF} does not support segment-base references, the \c{WRT}
operator is not used for its normal purpose; therefore NASM's
\c{elf} output format makes use of \c{WRT} for a different purpose,
namely the PIC-specific \I{relocations, PIC-specific}relocation
types.

\c{elf} defines five special symbols which you can use as the
right-hand side of the \c{WRT} operator to obtain PIC relocation
types. They are \i\c{..gotpc}, \i\c{..gotoff}, \i\c{..got},
\i\c{..plt} and \i\c{..sym}. Their functions are summarized here:

\b Referring to the symbol marking the global offset table base
using \c{wrt ..gotpc} will end up giving the distance from the
beginning of the current section to the global offset table.
(\i\c{_GLOBAL_OFFSET_TABLE_} is the standard symbol name used to
refer to the \i{GOT}.) So you would then need to add \i\c{$$} to the
result to get the real address of the GOT.

\b Referring to a location in one of your own sections using \c{wrt
..gotoff} will give the distance from the beginning of the GOT to
the specified location, so that adding on the address of the GOT
would give the real address of the location you wanted.

\b Referring to an external or global symbol using \c{wrt ..got}
causes the linker to build an entry \e{in} the GOT containing the
address of the symbol, and the reference gives the distance from the
beginning of the GOT to the entry; so you can add on the address of
the GOT, load from the resulting address, and end up with the
address of the symbol.

\b Referring to a procedure name using \c{wrt ..plt} causes the
linker to build a \i{procedure linkage table} entry for the symbol,
and the reference gives the address of the \i{PLT} entry. You can
only use this in contexts which would generate a PC-relative
relocation normally (i.e. as the destination for \c{CALL} or
\c{JMP}), since ELF contains no relocation type to refer to PLT
entries absolutely.

\b Referring to a symbol name using \c{wrt ..sym} causes NASM to
write an ordinary relocation, but instead of making the relocation
relative to the start of the section and then adding on the offset
to the symbol, it will write a relocation record aimed directly at
the symbol in question. The distinction is a necessary one due to a
peculiarity of the dynamic linker.

A fuller explanation of how to use these relocation types to write
shared libraries entirely in NASM is given in \k{picdll}.

\S{elftls} \i{Thread Local Storage in ELF}\I{TLS}: \c{elf} Special
Symbols and \i\c{WRT}

\b In ELF32 mode, referring to an external or global symbol using
\c{wrt ..tlsie} \I\c{..tlsie}
causes the linker to build an entry \e{in} the GOT containing the
offset of the symbol within the TLS block, so you can access the value
of the symbol with code such as:

\c	  mov  eax,[tid wrt ..tlsie]
\c	  mov  [gs:eax],ebx


\b In ELF64 or ELFx32 mode, referring to an external or global symbol using
\c{wrt ..gottpoff} \I\c{..gottpoff}
causes the linker to build an entry \e{in} the GOT containing the
offset of the symbol within the TLS block, so you can access the value
of the symbol with code such as:

\c	  mov	rax,[rel tid wrt ..gottpoff]
\c	  mov	rcx,[fs:rax]


\S{elfglob} \c{elf} Extensions to the \c{GLOBAL} Directive\I{GLOBAL,
elf extensions to}\I{GLOBAL, aoutb extensions to}

\c{ELF} object files can contain more information about a global
symbol than just its address: they can contain the \I{symbols,
specifying sizes}\I{size, of symbols}size of the symbol and its
\I{symbols, specifying types}\I{type, of symbols}type as well. These
are not merely debugger conveniences, but are actually necessary when
the program being written is a \I{elf shared library}shared
library. NASM therefore supports some extensions to the \c{GLOBAL}
directive, allowing you to specify these features.

You can specify whether a global variable is a function or a data
object by suffixing the name with a colon and the word
\i\c{function} or \i\c{data}. (\i\c{object} is a synonym for
\c{data}.) For example:

\c global   hashlookup:function, hashtable:data

exports the global symbol \c{hashlookup} as a function and
\c{hashtable} as a data object.

Optionally, you can control the ELF visibility of the symbol.  Just
add one of the \I{elf visibility}visibility keywords:
\I{default, elf}\c{default},
\I{internal, elf}\c{internal},
\I{hidden, elf}\c{hidden},
or \I{protected, elf}\c{protected}.  The default is
\c{default} of course.  For example, to make \c{hashlookup} hidden:

\c global   hashlookup:function hidden

Since version 2.15, it is possible to specify symbols binding. The keywords
are: \i\c{weak} to generate weak symbol or \i\c{strong}. The default is \i\c{strong}.

You can also specify the size of the data associated with the
symbol, as a numeric expression (which may involve labels, and even
forward references) after the type specifier. Like this:

\c global  hashtable:data (hashtable.end - hashtable)
\c
\c hashtable:
\c         db this,that,theother  ; some data here
\c .end:

This makes NASM automatically calculate the length of the table and
place that information into the \c{ELF} symbol table.

Declaring the type and size of global symbols is necessary when
writing shared library code. For more information, see
\k{picglobal}.


\S{elfextrn} \c{elf} Extensions to the \c{EXTERN} Directive\I{EXTERN,
elf extensions to}\I{EXTERN, elf extensions to}

Since version 2.15 it is possible to specify keyword \i\c{weak} to generate weak external
reference. Example:

\c extern weak_ref:weak


\S{elfcomm} \c{elf} Extensions to the \c{COMMON} Directive
\I{COMMON, elf extensions to}

\c{ELF} also allows you to specify alignment requirements \I{common
variables, alignment in elf}\I{alignment, of elf common variables}on
common variables. This is done by putting a number (which must be a
power of two) after the name and size of the common variable,
separated (as usual) by a colon. For example, an array of
doublewords would benefit from 4-byte alignment:

\c common  dwordarray 128:4

This declares the total size of the array to be 128 bytes, and
requires that it be aligned on a 4-byte boundary.


\S{elf16} 16-bit code and ELF
\I{ELF, 16-bit code}

Older versions of the \c{ELF32} specification did not provide
relocations for 8- and 16-bit values. It is now part of the formal
specification, and any new enough linker should support them.

ELF has currently no support for segmented programming.

\S{elfdbg} Debug formats and ELF
\I{ELF, debug formats}

ELF provides debug information in \c{STABS} and \c{DWARF} formats.
Line number information is generated for all executable sections, but please
note that only the ".text" section is executable by default.

\H{aoutfmt} \i\c{aout}: Linux \I{a.out, Linux version}\I{linux, a.out}\c{a.out} Object Files

The \c{aout} format generates \c{a.out} object files, in the form used
by early \i{Linux} systems (current Linux systems use ELF, see
\k{elffmt}.) These differ from other \c{a.out} object files in that
the magic number in the first four bytes of the file is
different; also, some implementations of \c{a.out}, for example
NetBSD's, support position-independent code, which Linux's
implementation does not.

\c{a.out} provides a default output file-name extension of \c{.o}.

\c{a.out} is a very simple object format. It supports no special
directives, no special symbols, no use of \c{SEG} or \c{WRT}, and no
extensions to any standard directives. It supports only the three
\i{standard section names} \i\c{.text}, \i\c{.data} and \i\c{.bss}.


\H{aoutfmt} \i\c{aoutb}: \i{NetBSD}/\i{FreeBSD}/\i{OpenBSD}
\I{a.out, BSD version}\c{a.out} Object Files

The \c{aoutb} format generates \c{a.out} object files, in the form
used by the various free \c{BSD Unix} clones, \c{NetBSD}, \c{FreeBSD}
and \c{OpenBSD}. For simple object files, this object format is exactly
the same as \c{aout} except for the magic number in the first four bytes
of the file. However, the \c{aoutb} format supports
\I{PIC}\i{position-independent code} in the same way as the \c{elf}
format, so you can use it to write \c{BSD} \i{shared libraries}.

\c{aoutb} provides a default output file-name extension of \c{.o}.

\c{aoutb} supports no special directives, no special symbols, and
only the three \i{standard section names} \i\c{.text}, \i\c{.data}
and \i\c{.bss}. However, it also supports the same use of \i\c{WRT} as
\c{elf} does, to provide position-independent code relocation types.
See \k{elfwrt} for full documentation of this feature.

\c{aoutb} also supports the same extensions to the \c{GLOBAL}
directive as \c{elf} does: see \k{elfglob} for documentation of
this.


\H{as86fmt} \c{as86}: \i{Minix}/Linux\I{linux, as86} \i\c{as86} Object Files

The Minix/Linux 16-bit assembler \c{as86} has its own non-standard
object file format. Although its companion linker \i\c{ld86} produces
something close to ordinary \c{a.out} binaries as output, the object
file format used to communicate between \c{as86} and \c{ld86} is not
itself \c{a.out}.

NASM supports this format, just in case it is useful, as \c{as86}.
\c{as86} provides a default output file-name extension of \c{.o}.

\c{as86} is a very simple object format (from the NASM user's point
of view). It supports no special directives, no use of \c{SEG} or \c{WRT},
and no extensions to any standard directives. It supports only the three
\i{standard section names} \i\c{.text}, \i\c{.data} and \i\c{.bss}.  The
only special symbol supported is \c{..start}.


\H{dbgfmt} \i\c{dbg}: Debugging Format

The \c{dbg} format does not output an object file as such; instead,
it outputs a text file which contains a complete list of all the
transactions between the main body of NASM and the output-format
back end module. It is primarily intended to aid people who want to
write their own output drivers, so that they can get a clearer idea
of the various requests the main program makes of the output driver,
and in what order they happen.

For simple files, one can easily use the \c{dbg} format like this:

\c nasm -f dbg filename.asm

which will generate a diagnostic file called \c{filename.dbg}.
However, this will not work well on files which were designed for a
different object format, because each object format defines its own
macros (usually user-level forms of directives), and those macros
will not be defined in the \c{dbg} format. Therefore it can be
useful to run NASM twice, in order to do the preprocessing with the
native object format selected:

\c nasm -e -f elf32 -o elfprog.i elfprog.asm
\c nasm -a -f dbg elfprog.i

This preprocesses \c{elfprog.asm} into \c{elfprog.i}, keeping the
\c{elf32} object format selected in order to make sure ELF special
directives are converted into primitive form correctly. Then the
preprocessed source is fed through the \c{dbg} format to generate the
final diagnostic output.

This workaround will still typically not work for programs intended
for \c{obj} format, because the \c{obj} \c{SEGMENT} and \c{GROUP}
directives have side effects of defining the segment and group names
as symbols; \c{dbg} will not do this, so the program will not
assemble. You will have to work around that by defining the symbols
yourself (using \c{EXTERN}, for example) if you really need to get a
\c{dbg} trace of an \c{obj}-specific source file.

\c{dbg} accepts any section name and any directives at all, and logs
them all to its output file.

\c{dbg} accepts and logs any \c{%pragma}, but the specific
\c{%pragma}:

\c      %pragma dbg maxdump <size>

where \c{<size>} is either a number or \c{unlimited}, can be used to
control the maximum size for dumping the full contents of a
\c{rawdata} output object.
