rec.gardens.ecosystems Frequently Asked Questions Table of Contents Last update: October 26, 1997 Section A: General Information, Definition of Terms, Hints & Tips A.01.*: Introduction to General Information (Please Read) A.01.01: Reasons for rec.gardens.ecosystems A.01.02: Reasons for moderating rec.gardens.ecosystems A.01.03: Reasons for the FAQ A.01.04: Basic Orientation & Policies A.02.*: Definition of Terms: A.02.01: Ecosystems A.02.02: Organic Gardening A.02.03: Integrated Pest Management A.02.04: International Certification Standards A.03.*: Hints & Tips A.03.01: How to use the FAQ A.03.02: How to use this Index A.03.03: How to use the International Certification Standards A.03.04: Knowing when to post on rec.gardens or when to post on rec.gardens.ecosystems A.04.*: Some consequences of moderation A.04.00: Introduction to some consequences of moderation A.04.01: The intelligence of a robot moderator A.04.02: Receiving automated notes A.04.03: Posting by e-mail A.04.04: Moderation causes delays A.04.05: Contacting a human A.04.06: Catching the group faster A.04.07: Complaints about moderators A.04.08: Becoming a moderator A.04.09: The moderated newsgroup's FAQ A.05.*: Netiquette A.05.00: Introduction to netiquette A.05.01: The one on the other side is also a flesh and blood person A.05.02: Writing English A.05.03: The Bozo Button A.05.04: Dealing with Flames A.05.05: Some bad ideas: Mailbombings & Despammed addresses A.05.06: Shouting (please don't) A.05.07: The issues of personal ego A.05.08: Formatting a message, quoting, & using a signature A.05.09: Posting to the group or replying privately by e-mail? A.05.10: Other sources of information about netiquette Section B: Soil Structure & Content; Soil Properties & Amendments; Soil Microorganisms, Soil Macro Organisms; Correcting Soil Problems; and Mulches B.01.*: Soil Structure and Content B.02.*: Soil Properties and Soil Amendments B.03.*: Soil Microorganisms B.04.*: Soil Macro Organisms B.05.*: Soil Problems, Biological B.06.*: Soil Problems, Chemical B.07.*: Soil Problems, Mechanical B.08.*: Mulches B.09.*: Soil, Misc. Section C: Composting & Use of Compost C.01.*: The Use of Compost in the Home Garden C.01.01: How does compost compare to manure as a fertilizer? C.02.*: The Construction of the Compost Heap C.03.*: Appropriate Starting Materials C.03.01: What is the C/N, Carbon - Nitrogen ratio about? C.04.*: Inappropriate Starting Materials C.05.*: Starting and Maintaining Compost Bins or Heaps C.06.*: Vermicomposting C.07.*: Sheet Composting C.08.*: Composting & Use of Compost, Misc. Section D: Plant Nutrition D.01.*: Essential Nutrients D.02.*: Nutritional Content of Fertilizers and Soil Amendments D.03.*: Release Rates D.04.*: Nutrient uptake by the Roots D.05.*: Nutrient up-take by Foliar Feeding D.06.*: Nutrient uptake through Mycorrhizae D.07.*: Symptoms of Nutrient Distress D.08.*: Plant Nutrition, Misc. Section E: Cultural Practices E.01.*: Plant Selection E.02.*: Companion plantings E.03.*: Soil Preparation E.04.*: Garden Design E.05.*: Garden Editing E.06.*: Watering and Irrigation Practices E.07.*: Sanitation practices E.08.*: Pruning E.09.*: Problem Cultural Practices E.10.*: Cultural Practices, misc. Section F: Botany for Home Gardeners F.01.*: Cells and Tissue; Structure and Formation F.02.*: Root Systems; Structure and Function F.03.*: Stem Systems; Structure and Function F.04.*: Leaves and Leaf Variations; Structure and Function F.05.*: Flowers and Fruit F.06.*: Seeds and Spores F.07.*: Bulbs and Bulb-like Plants F.08.*: Plant Propagation F.09.*: Plant Genetics for the Home Gardener F.10.*: Botany for Home Gardeners, Misc. Section G: Plant & Soil Disease; Treatment & Prevention G.01.*: The Principles of Disease Control G.02.*: Characteristics and Symptoms of Plant and Soil Disease G.03.*: Life Cycles & Biology of Disease Organisms G.04.*: Prevention and/or Treatment of Plant & Soil Disease by Cultural Practices G.05.*: Prevention and/or Treatment of Plant & Soil Disease by OCIA Approved Fungicides and Bactericides G.06.*: Prevention and/or Treatment of Plant & Soil Disease by Alternative Materials or Methods G.07.*: Characteristics of Fungicides & Bactericides G.08.*: Plant & Soil Disease, Misc. Section H: Plant & Soil Pests; Treatment & Prevention H.01.*: Principles of Pest Control H.02.*: Life Cycles & Biology of Garden Pests H.03.*: Prevention and Treatment of Garden Pets using Cultural Practices H.04.*: Prevention and Treatment of Garden Pests using Beneficial Organisms H.05.*: Prevention and Treatmnent of Garden Pests using Biological or "Biodynamic" Pesticides H.05.01: What's the best way to control Japanese Beetles? H.06.*: Prevention and Treatment of Garden Pests using Traps and Barriers H.07.*: Prevention and Treatment of Garden Pests using Pesticides H.08.*: Characteristics of Pesticides H.08.01: What is biomagnification? H.08.02: How is toxicity of pesticides measured? H.08.03: What is the LD50 for some common pesticides? H.08.04: What are the "three Rs and an S"? H.09.*: Plant and Soil Pests, Misc. Section I: Weeds, Weed Prevention, and Weed Control I.01.*: Weed Biology; Characteristics and Growth Habits I.01.01: What's the best control for Horse Tail? I.02.*: Weed Prevention I.02.01: Does composting really kill weed seeds? I.02.02: What about the use of newspaper to prevent weeds? I.03.*: Hand Weeding I.03.01: What would happen if I just kept chopping off the top growth? I.04.*: Weed Control using fire and/or heat I.04.01: What's the procedure for soil solarization? I.05.*: Plants as a means of Weed Control I.05.01: What is "allelopathy"? I.06.*: Miscellaneous Biological Means of Weed Control I.06.01: Are mycoherbicides O.K. to use in the home garden? I.07.*: Chemical Weed Control I.07.01: What's a good and easy way to get rid of Poison Ivy? I.08.*: Weeds, Weed Prevention and Weed Control, Misc. Section J: Gardening for Wildlife J.01.*: The Use of Companion Plants in the Garden to Attract Wildlife J.01.01: What are "trap crops". J.02.*: Attracting Bees and other Pollinators J.02.01: What are the best plants to attract bees to my garden? J.02.02: I live in a crowded suburb with neighbors on both side. Is it feasible for me to keep bees? J.02.03: How about having a FAQ on bee keeping? J.03.*: The Use of Trees, Shrubs, Hedges, and Brush to Attract Wildlife J.04.*: The Use of Water Features and other Garden Structures to Attract and/or to Maintain Wildlife J.05.*: Garden Pesticide Usage and Wildlife J.06.*: Gardening Neighboring Rustic Lands J.07.*: Gardening for Wildlife, Misc. Section K: Growing Edible Foods / Growing Organic Crops (Under Construction) Appendix A: Internation Certification Standards Appendix B: Recommended Reading Appendix C: Related Newsgroups, Websites, & Off-line Addresses Appendix D: Moderation Policy Appendix E: Glossary of Botanical Terms Section A: General Information, Definition of Terms, Hints and Tips: PLEASE READ A.01.* General Information: A.01.01: Reasons for rec.gardens.ecosystems: Successful organic gardening is more demanding than non-organic gardening because it requires a working knowledge of the ways the total natural community interrelates with the physical and chemical environment of the home garden. This is the basic meaning of the term, ecosystems. The purpose of rec.gardens. ecosystems is to provide a forum for the discussion of gardening with the ecosystem of the home garden. A.01.02: Reasons for moderating rec.gardens.ecosystems: The primary goal for moderating rec.gardens.ecosystems is to prevent cross posting. The moderation system includes the use of both human moderators and a robot moderator. The robot moderator has the ability and has been given the authority to reject articles that have been cross posted. Another advantage is that it gives the human moderators the resources to discourage inappropriate postings. The complete Moderation Policy is cited in Appendix D. A.01.03: Reasons for the FAQ: Rec.gardens.ecosystems consists of a newsgroup and a FAQ. The newsgroup portion is meant to serve as a forum for the free discussion of the ways to tend the home garden in cooperation with nature. The FAQ portion is meant to serve as a record and companion reference for those discussions. Because the ecosystem of one area is often so different from the ecosystem of another and because organic answers tend to be so regional, the content of the FAQ is based on discussions from the group and from the existing knowledge and experience of the volunteers who help maintain the FAQ. The FAQ format is particularly well suited for answers from multiple sources. A.01.04: Basic Orientation and Policies: The purpose of organic gardening is to protect that portion of the environment contained within the boundaries of the garden. The individual home gardener isn't going to heal the wounded environment of the larger community by gardening in a special way but that individual can work at protecting the environment under his or her care. Protecting the environment of the garden is important for several reasons. One, it is of benefit to the environment of the larger community and is just good citizenship. Two, it is of benefit to the garden. Organic gardening will not necessarily produce the biggest crop or the greatest number of blossoms, now will it necessarily eliminate all of the every day problems but in the long run, a healthy ecosystem will produce a healthier and more problem resistant garden. Three, it is of benefit to the home in terms of safety. Many of the synthetic pesticides and herbicides toxic to pests and weeds are also toxic to the inhabitants of the home. Anything that can be done to reduce or to eliminate the presence of these toxic materials around the home increases home safety. There may be isolated situations in the garden in which the use of non-organic materials or non-organic cultural practices is appropriate. It is the policy of rec.gardens.ecosystems to differentiate between the situational use of toxic materials which may be appropriate and the routine use of toxic materials which is clearly inappropriate in an organic gardening program. A.02.* Definition of Terms: A.02.01: Ecosystems: The ecosystem is the way the community of all of the living things in a specific space interrelate with each other and with the physical and chemical environment that they share. "Common Sense Pest Control" by Olkowski, Daar, and Olkowski describes the function of ecosystems as follows: "Why is it helpful to understand a pest's place in the local ecosystem (which may be your kitchen, basement or lawn)? It is helpful because everything is connected to everything else. Knowing what a pest feeds upon, what feeds on it and what other conditions are favorable or unfavorable to its survival reveals a multitude of strategies for influencing the pest's presence or absence. By contrast, traditional pest control has been severely hampered by its narrow focus on the pest organism alone. If the pest organism is all you consider, your only options are to endure it or directly repel, remove or kill it. Traditional pest control techniques fall into just those categories. By taking an ecosystem perspective, you can usually find a multitude of ways to affect the pest indirectly by modifying or removing conditions that support it, or by creating situations that encourage its natural controls. As you can see, the target organism is at the center ,with the abiotic and biotic components of the ecosystem surrounding it, the human activities that maintain the ecosystem surrounding those and the sociopolitical reality of the larger society as the context in which all these systems occur. The important fact to remember is this: Changing any one of these components in a system affects all the other components to some degree. That alone makes it plain that there must be ways to achieve the objective of pest suppression besides spraying with a poison. . . . " A.02.02: Organic Gardening: Organic gardening can be defined as gardening with environ- mentally friendly materials and environmentally friendly cultural practices. Those materials considered as "environ- mentally friendly" are, for the most part, those materials approved for use and listed in the International Certification Standards of the Organic Crop Improvement Association. A copy of that Standard is cited in Appendix A of this FAQ. Those practices that are considered as "environmentally friendly" are those practices traditionally associated with organic gardening and/or Integrated Pest Management. A.02.03: Integrated Pest Management: Integrated Pest Management or IPM is a variation of organic gardening that emphasizes cultural practices and biological controls for the control of garden pests and disease. The core premiss is that the ecosystem is able to provide the necessary pest control if the gardener will just do the basic cultural practices supplemented with appropriate biological controls. In the event that the ecosystem is not able to provide the level of control needed, the gardener then employs those materials normally associated with organic gardening. In the event that the organic gardening materials are not able to provide the control, the gardener then has the option of using toxic pesticides but only as a last resort. The goal of IPM is to use as little pesticide as possible to obtain a realistic level of control. The option to use toxic materials can always be declined. IPM is the pest control method of choice by many commercial growers. The USDA reports that approximately half of every crop acre in the United States is under some form of IPM. The national goal is 75% of the total crop acres by the year 2000. It is a cost effective use of both environmentally friendly and toxic pesticides. The primary lesson to be learned from IPM is that pest control should be targeted to a reasonable level of control using as little control material as possible. The ability to accept a level of control also requires the ability to accept a level of pest and disease damage. It is simply not realistic to insist on the total destruction of every pest or disease organism in the garden. A.02.04: International Certification Standards: Farmers growing organic crops had problems because there was no universally accepted standard for organic farming. The commercial standards adopted by the various national or state agricultural departments varied. Crops labeled and marketed in one jurisdiction as "organic" couldn't claim to be "organic" in another. Further, there was no real inspection program to support that there was compliance to any standard. A group of independent farmers growing organic crops formed the Organic Crop Improvement Association. They got input from many sources and started a certification program which included an International Certification Standard as well as an inspection program that has become the recognized standard throughout the international community. Farmers pay the OCIA a fee to have their land and their farming operations certified. The International Certification Standard can be seen in its entirety on the OCIA's home page at: The sections that are of most relevance to the home gardener are Sections Two and Ten which are in this FAQ as Appendix A. A.03.* Hints and Tips: A.03.01: How to use the FAQ: The FAQ for rec.gardens.ecosystems attempts to answer the "frequently asked questions" of home gardeners following organic gardening techniques. It is intended as a convenient and reliable source of basic information on the every day issues of the home garden. It is updated and posted on rec.gardens.ecosystems when that seems appropriate to the maintainers. The FAQ maintainers make a concerted effort to keep the content of the FAQ current, relevant, and accurate. The information in the FAQ can be used freely at one's won risk. The FAQ maintainers can not be held responsible for any damage caused by information in the FAQ. A.03.02: How to use this Index: The indexing system for this FAQ is like the indexing systems used by libraries. All of the articles are divided by topics into major sections with each section designated by letter and indexed. The major sections are then further sub-divided into more specific topics. The sub-divisions are designated by number. This kind of indexing system makes it easier for the reader to find material. It also make it easier for the FAQ maintainers to update or add new material. A.03.03: How to use the International Certification Standards: The International Certification Standard is the adopted standard that is used for crops marketed as "organic". It is the product of the Organic Crop Growers Improvement Association and it is recognized by regulatory agencies and trade associations the world over. It is of particular value to the home gardener because it provides an impartial list of those materials known to be effective and documented as being "environmentally friendly". The International Certification Standard has no private agenda and it is based on solid data. A.03.04: Knowing when to post on rec.gardens or when to post on rec.gardens.ecosystems: Most gardeners prefer to use materials or methods that are environmentally friendly provided that those materials or methods really work. The gardener who follows strict organic gardening techniques usually has to put up with more pest or disease damage. The gardener who uses nothing but compost or manure as fertilizer doesn't always get the most vigorous growth. Learning how to garden with nature and learning how to get the most out of environmentally friendly materials and methods also takes effort. If the reader is interested primarily in working to protect the ecosystem of the garden and is willing to make the extra effort that usually goes with organic gardening, then posting through rec.gardens.ecosystems is probably the most appropriate. On the other hand, if the reader is not particularly interested in the protection of the ecosystem and just wants short term control of garden pests, the posting should probably go through rec. gardens. Certainly, there is overlap involving rec.gardens.ecosystems and rec.gardens, but there is also overlap involving gardening, agricultural and botanical newsgroups. It is mostly a question of emphasis. A.04.*: Some consequences of moderation A.04.00: Introduction to some consequences of moderation Moderated groups function somewhat differently than unmoderated groups. Rec.gardens.ecosystems is no exception to that. This section discusses the specifics in the moderation of rec.gardens.ecosystems. A.04.01: The intelligence of a robot moderator Articles submitted to rec.gardens.ecosystems are initially processed by a computer program. The program handles the technical sides of moderation. It also scans for articles that are clearly inappropriate including articles containing binaries, empty articles, cross posted articles, missing subject lines, and redundant articles. Inappropriate articles are automatically rejected by the program. Articles that contain more than 50% quoted material, articles in HTML format, and articles containing diacritical marks are automatically forwarded to a human moderator. The robot moderator has some minor artificial intelligence (AI) programmed into it as well. This AI is used to filter out junk mail and flames. The robot does not decide on these articles but forwards them to a human moderator for approval. Obviously, the robot misses some of that material and occasionally hits upon a false alarm. Missed junk mail and flames can cause irritation and false alarms can cause delays in posting. If the robot moderator or bot misses too many junk mail articles or flames, moderation can be shifted back to the human moderators. A strict adherence to the netiquette described in subsection A.05.* will prevent most, but not all, false alarms. A.04.02: Receiving automated notes When ever the robot moderator decides that a posted message requires human moderation, the poster receives an acknowledgment identifying the designated moderator; however, receiving such an acknowledgment is dependent upon the validity of the poster's address. If you change your e-mail address to avoid spams, the mail sent by the robot moderator will bounce and you won't know what happened to your post. See A.05.05 A.04.03: Posting by e-mail A definite advantage to moderated groups is that they can receive e-mail submissions. This makes it possible to use your regular e-mail program to post. This portion of the FAQ, for example, was written in Word Perfect using 10 point Courier to make it easy to count the right number of characters per line, checked using reveal code to take care of messy spacings, checked with Spell Check to make it available for posting by e-mail. The e-mail address for submitting posts is ecosys-submit@sunSITE.unc.edu A.04.04: Moderation causes delays Posts to unmoderated groups are automatically inserted into the group at the author's particular newsserver. They are forwarded from there to other nearby newsservers. The result is that these submissions appear almost instantly at the poster's site but take a while to reach other sites. Posts to moderated groups are routed differently. The newsserver establishes that the post is for a moderated group and forwards it for moderation approval. After the post is approved by either the robot moderator or the human moderator, the message is posted to the newsserver used by the moderated group. In our case, the newsserver at the University of North Carolina. The message is distributed from there over Usenet to your newsserver. The routing and the moderation process causes delays. If your article is approved by the robot moderator, the approval is virtually instant. If it is directed to one of the human moderators, it could take as long as a day for moderation as moderators have a life apart from moderating articles. The time it takes for an article to be routed through Usenet varies from a couple of minutes to a couple of days. If you want to establish the propagation delay by your particular newsserver, look at the dateline of the header. This is the date and time the article was posted to the group in North Carolina which is in time zone GMT+4. If your approved submissions take more than a day to reach your newsserver, contact ecosys-admin@sunSITE.unc.edu for assistance in speeding up distribution. A.04.05: Contacting a human Several people are involved in the rec.gardens.ecosystems project. Their project related activities may center around the maintenance of the home page, the maintenance of the FAQ, and/or the moderation process. Since they all have e-mail addresses which may change from time to time and because there are also new people becoming involved, the group has a contact address, ecosys-admin@sunSITE.unc.edu. Mail to that address is automatically forwarded to the human moderators for handling. A.04.06: Catching the group faster As noted in A.04.04, the Usenet propagating process can cause delay in getting articles to the group. Even though rec.gardens.ecosystems uses multiple injection sites, this delay can still be more than 24 hours. It is possible to inject articles into your site directly if your ISP is willing to do this for you. If this is something you wish to pursue, ecosys-admin@sunSITE.unc.edu may be able to help. A.04.07: Complaints about moderators The moderators are volunteers who try to make rec.gardens.ecosystems a friendly group with a high signal to noise ratio. Every now and then, they reject articles because they consider them in conflict with the standards set in the group charter. The charter spells out the topics considered as appropriate and the policies of moderation. The charter was adopted by vote and can be viewed at http://sunSITE.unc.edu/InterGarden/rge/charter.html If you think that the moderators have made an incorrect or improper decision, measure that decision by the charter. After you have reviewed the charter and you still feel that the moderator's decision is wrong, you are welcome to take this up with the moderator or with ecosys-admin@sunSITE.unc.edu to make sure that all of the moderators are aware of the situation. A.04.08: Becoming a moderator In a perfect world, moderators for rec.gardens.ecosystems would have the following traits: - good intelligence with lots of common sense - a good, working knowledge of IPM, organic gardening and the ecosystems of gardens - an ability to work well with people from every walk in life - the capacity to tolerate a certain amount of abuse - a sense of humor and the ability to see things in their proper perspective - some knowledge of the working of Usenet, HTML, and UNIX shell scripts. In a real world, such traits are rare in the single person but the current moderator group could use some expansion. Those who would like to become a moderator read the charter as it spells out additional details regarding procedures. Contact ecosys-admin@sunSITE.unc.edu to apply. A.04.09 The moderated newsgroup's FAQ The current document addresses some of the topics concerning the moderation of rec.gardens.ecosystems. The complete moderation policy is included in our FAQ. Denis McKeon at http://www.swcp.com/~dmckeon/mod-faq.html maintains a separate FAQ dedicated to the moderation of newsgroups. A.05.*: Netiquette A.05.00: Introduction to netiquette Newsgroups like rec.gardens.ecosystems provide a forum for all kinds of people with all kinds of backgrounds and orientations. These differences can lead to misunderstandings. Netiquette, or good on-line manners, are unofficial guidelines that help avoid or minimize misunderstandings and help make life on-line more pleasant. This section is about some aspects of netiquette. A.05.01: The one on the other side is also a flesh and blood person This is the basis of netiquette and the reason why hitting the "send" button when you are angry isn't a good idea. As a rule of thumb, it is better to be on the safe side and avoid strong wording. This may not convey the feelings of the moment but at least it helps to being heard. Also flames and spams are not good manners and are not welcomed on rec.gardens.ecosystems. A.05.02: Writing English English is the Lingua Fracta of the Usenet. It is the most common second language in the world. Many of those using English as their second language are likely to make silly grammatical errors along with misspellings and typos. If you are annoyed by the English of these second language speakers, ask yourself how well you would do in their native language. Also, bear in mind that all of us make mistakes and not a few of us have yet to master typing. Obedience to the rules of English spelling and grammar make posts more understandable but especially to those attempting to deal with English as a second language. Misspelled words or grammatical errors make translations all the more difficult. A.05.03: The Bozo Button Every now and then you might see a post stating something that you consider stupid or simply wrong. You may be even tempted to post for the purpose of exposing the author's stupidity or ignorance of the facts. Keep in mind that the author is also a person. If you see wrong information and you want to reply, you'll do a better job by simply explaining why that information isn't right. This avoids hitting your bozo button and the bozo button of others as well. A.05.04: Dealing with Flames Rec.gardens.ecosystems has an official policy of not accepting flames; however, they can slip through the moderation mechanisms. If this happens, the moderators may eat their heart out but they have the resource to switch to full moderation to prevent an escalation. Should you happen to see or receive a flame, it is best to simply ignore it or to try to settle the difference via e-mail. A.05.05: Some bad ideas: mailbombings & despammed addresses There was a time when sending large files was effective as a spam revenge. Spammers now fake their header lines and avoid the mailbombing. The mailbombs simply go the faked address where they bounce back to the original source. In essence traveling twice, having no effect aside from really wasting bandwidth. It is often hoped that the use of an address like someone@nospam.somesite.somedomain will reduce the amount of received junk mail. It usually does but at great expense. The junk mail arrives at the invalid address, it then bounces back to the original source which can be another invalid address, and it bounces again. Even when postmasters stop the endless bouncing, the junk mail has traveled at least twice over the net wasting a lot of bandwidth in the process. Also if you use a despammed address, the robot moderator will not be able to reach you. A.05.06: Shouting (please don't) Shouting is the written equivalent of raising one's voice. One form of shouting is writing in capitals. Another form is the excessive use of exclamation points. Just as in polite society, raising one's voice or shouting is often considered rude. Those who write spam messages often write in capitals or use lots of exclamation points to draw attention to their message and to make their offer appear bold and exciting. The use of all capitals and lots of exclamation points, particularly in the subject lines, are clues of spamming and the robot moderator shifts the post to human moderation which only causes delay. A.05.07: The issues of personal ego Most of us have ego problems, some more than others, and they can get in the way of our communication. In extreme cases, a person may try to get his or her message posted in a number of newsgroups regardless of suitability. Some persons might even use "four-letter words" in the subject line just trying to draw attention. The robot moderator screens out cross-posted articles and refers articles containing offensive language to the human moderators. The larger issue is knowing how to deal with those things that tend to get in the way of our communication. Efforts spent on drawing attention to oneself or gaining fans would be better spent in thinking through what we really want to say. Its O.K. to admit that we don't know everything or that we are often wrong. Its also O.K. to disagree. Its just a better thing to disagree with respect. A.05.08: Formatting a message, quoting, & using a signature Some people prefer to read text in textmode which can only handle an 80 character line. It's best to keep the line length to about 72 characters to allow for the ‘>' at the start of quoted material and for a little slack. These relatively short lines create relatively long paragraphs which tend to look awkward. Work at making paragraphs look proportioned. It's also a good habit, when responding to a post, to include the relevant portions of the original text that you are addressing. Include enough quoted material to give your post context and meaning but be selective for greater clarity and to save bandwidth. Messages containing more than 50% quoted material are forwarded to a human moderator automatically. It helps to identify quoted material and to clarify context by using the traditional [snip] showing the location of the cut. If you use a signature that is appended to your posts automatically, please make sure that it is less than five lines and does not contain commercial references. A.05.9: Posting to the group or replying privately by e-mail? Rec.gardens.ecosystems is intended as a group to discuss the ecosystems of home gardens and the outgrowth of groups is social interaction. It is this social interaction that gives each group its own personality. Groups can become too social causing a loss of focus or purpose. They can also become too content centered causing the group to feel cold and lifeless. Every group member shares a certain responsibility in maintaining the right balance. It comes down to knowing what kind of social interchange between group members should be posted publicly through the group or sent privately through e-mail. The rule of thumb is that if the message is totally social, it should probably go e-mail but there's nothing wrong with a few jibes or chuckles being included in a group post if the context is on-topic. Needless to say personal flames don't belong in a group. If you find someone's remarks or manner offensive and you feel the need to say something, write a friendly and private note by e-mail explaining your views. It is moderation policy to trust in the ability of the group members to resolve their own differences. If you are not able to work things out after you have explained your views and problems continue, notify ecosys-admin@sunSITE.unc.edu. As soon as moderators notice an offensive post, it is moderation policy to send a private e-mail to the author and to request a more civil tone. If the problem continues, all messages submitted by that author are shifted to human moderation and become subject to rejection. A.05.10: Other sources of information about netiquette The group news.announce.newusers contains some outstanding articles on Usenet and netiquette. They are good reading for not so new users as well. Section B: Soil Structure & Content; Soil Properties & Amendments; Soil Microorganisms; Soil Macro Organisms; Correcting Soil Problems; and Mulches B.00: Introduction to Soils Rodale talked about the importance of feeding the soil rather than feeding the garden and emphasized that soil is a living creature requiring special care. In some cases, the required care is minimal and straight forward. In other cases, the required care is significant and/or complex. This section deals with all of those things that are involved in the preparation, the care and maintenance, and the correction or amendment of garden soils. B.01.* Soil Structure & Content B.01.00: Introduction to Soil Structure & Content The quality of a garden soil is the function of the chemical and physical properties of the content of the soil and the structure of the soil. Regarding content, a good garden soil contains a balance mixture of five constituents: 1.) About two-thirds by volume weathered rock ranging in size from small stones all the down to the tiniest specs of clay; 2.) About one-third by volume humus which is dead and decomposing organic matter from both animal and plant sources; 3.) A very substantial population of living creatures, particularly soil microorganisms; 4.) A large quantity of water containing a variety of dissolved mineral nutrients and 5.) A remarkable amount of air. The chemical and physical properties of soil are determined primarily by the size and shape of the weathered rock particles and the quantity and quality of the organic matter. In light or sandy soils, the particles are relatively large and boulder shaped creating an open structure with an abundance of air spaces. Sandy soils have sharp drainage and do a poor job of holding moisture and nutrients. Heavy or clay soils have small, flat particles that stack together for a closed structure containing very little space for air. Clay soils resist wetting but once wet become very water retentive. Clay soils are more subject to damage as a result of compaction. A good loam soil has chemical and structural properties that are somewhere in between the extremes of a sandy soil and clay. This sub-section is about the physical structure and content of soil. See sub-section B.02.* regarding the physical properties. B.02.*: Soil Properties & Amendments B.02.00: Introduction to Soil Properties & Amendments Tilth is a soil quality that can be felt in the hand. The soil hangs together to form a pliable mass when squeezed but should not be sticky. The soil crumbles into bits and pieces when it is rolled against the fingers. Tilth is one of the signs of a really good soil. Tilth means that it is workable and fit for the growing of plants. A soil with tilth gives the roots of plants and the soil organisms easier passage. B.03.*: Soil Microorganisms B.03.00: Introduction to Soil Microorganisms Soil organisms are often broken down into two groups depending on their size. The first group, the soil microorganisms, are organisms that can only be viewed with a microscope. The second group, the soil macro organisms, can be seen with the naked eye. Traditionally, the term soil microorganisms referred to those fungi, bacteria, and actinomycete that live in and on decomposing organic matter in the soil. Some of these micro-organisms are indispensable to the life giving properties of the soil. Some should just be considered as being beneficial with some as almost incidental regarding their use in the garden. A small number of the soil micro-organisms are pathogens with the potential to cause disease. The division between micro-organisms and macro-organisms based on size doesn't always work. Mycorrhizae, for example, are highly beneficial fungus organisms that have a symbiotic relationship with the roots of most plants. They are usually not counted as soil microorganisms because some can be seen with the naked eye. They are included in this sub-section as micro-organisms not because of their size but because they resemble the soil micro-organisms in their overall function. Nematodes, on the other hand, are small enough to be considered as micro-organisms but they are so unlike the soil micro-organisms in their function that they are included in the sub-section on soil macro-organisms. This sub-section is about the role of the various soil micro-organisms, the various ways to protect and nurture the beneficial organisms, particularly the mycorrhizae, and the ways of dealing with soil pathogens without the use of toxic drenches or fumigants. B.04.*: Soil Macro Organisms B.04.00: Introduction to Soil Macro Organisms Soil macro organisms is a convenient, catch-all name for all of those creatures that live in the soil that are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. This would include everything from the beneficial earth worms up to some of the highly destructive grubs. It does not include the larger burrowing mammals but does include nematodes. See sub-section C.03.* This sub-section is about the ways to protect and nurture the various beneficial macro organisms and ways to deal with the destructive ones without the use of toxic drenches or fumigants. B.05.*: Soil Problems, Biological B.05.00: Introduction to Soil Problems, Biological In addition to an assortment of problems caused by micro- or macro organisms, there are a number of miscellaneous soil problems caused by other organic or biological agents. The most common, of course, is the problem with weeds. This sub-section deals with different ways to minimize weeds from happening and with the different ways o deal with weeds should they become established. The challenge is to get the upper hand without injuring the soil or the beneficial soil organisms. When soils are degraded by prolonged flooding or compaction, exposure to toxic materials, etc., the action is primarily the result of the destruction of the soil's ecosystem. The various beneficial soil organisms, particularly the mycorrhizae, are relatively fragile and subject to damage by a host of foreign materials and various adverse conditions. A degraded soil is mostly a biological problem. This sub-section is also about the prevention and correction of degraded soil. There are additional soil problems caused by other biological agents. One example is the use of composted manures as soil amendments or fertilizer. Hot composting will normally kill any pathogens present in the manure but there is a potential problem with the use of raw manures, the use of manures from domestic animals, or manures that have not been fully composted or only cold composted. This sub-section is also about the prevention and correction of biological contaminates. B.06.*: Soil Problems, Chemical B.06.00: Introduction to Soil Problems, Chemical pH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity. The pH of chemically pure water is 7.0 which is considered neutral. The lower the pH, the higher the acidity. Conversely, the higher the pH, the higher the alkalinity. Most plants like the soil to be just slightly acid with a pH somewhere around 6.2 to 6.5. One of the most common soil problems is when the pH is outside of that range. The adage that the toxicity of the poison is in the dosage is particularly appropriate to the issue of chemicals in the soil. The use of synthetic fertilizer is a classic example. Their fast release of the various nutrients is the release of too much material over too short a time. The soil and the plants do much better with a feeding from natural materials that release smaller quantities of nutrients over an extended period of time. The third problem is dealing with soil polluted with toxic chemicals. This sub-section is about all of those issues and the way to resolve soil problems caused by the various chemicals using strictly organic means. B.07.*: Soil Problems, Mechanical B.07.00: Introduction to Soil Problems, Mechanical No-till gardening coupled with the use of a thick layer of compost as a mulch is becoming increasingly popular. It is not only easier in terms of labor but the soil also seems to do better when it is not disturbed and when it is covered with a protective mulch. On-going cultivation seems to hurt the overall structure and mycorrhizae do better when left alone. Soil, and particularly clay, is damaged when compacted which is particularly common when working in wet soil. The soil organisms and the plant roots require air, for the most part, as much as they require water. This sub-section is about the different ways to avoid and to correct soil problems that are caused by mechanical means. B.08.*: Mulches B.08.00: Introduction to Mulches A mulch is any material that is placed on top of the soil as a porus blanket and a soil adjunct. It can conserve soil moisture, keep the soil temperature around the roots relatively constant, prevent or decrease problems with soil erosion, and reduce problems with weeds. Mulches can also be used to form a protective barrier between infected soils and clean foliage. This sub-section is about the many different materials that can be used as a mulch and their application in the home garden. B.09.*: Soil, Misc. B.09.00: Introduction to Soil, Misc. This is a temporary, catch-all sub-section for all of those issues that don't seem to fit in the other soil categories. Section C: Composting & Use of Compost C.00: Introduction to Composting & Use of Compost Every year billions of leaves fall from trees and this has been going on for millions of years. One might ask why the earth isn't covered with a layer of leaves several miles thick. The answer is that nature is a Master Composter and continuously consumes or digests huge quantities of spent organic material and recycles it back into mother earth. It takes a lot of compost to keep life going! This section is about the benefits of compost in the home garden, the various ways to construct a compost bin or heap, the kinds of materials that should or should not be composted, the do's and the don't's of composting, the various ways compost can be used and the composting process itself. C.01.*: The Use of Compost in the Home Garden: C.01.00: Introduction to the Use of Compost in the Home Garden Compost benefits the soil in many ways: 1.) Compost returns the basic nutrients to the soil. Compost is not primarily a fertilizer. It is mostly a food source for the soil micro- and macro organisms. It is the products of this feeding that feed the plants of the garden; 2.) It is one of the best natural sources for organic material needed to make humus, the richest of all plant nutrients; 3.)It is also one of the best natural sources for the essential trace elements; 4.) It is outstanding as a soil amendment - improving the workability of the soil as well as the drainage, speeding up the drainage of soils that drain too slowly and slowing down the drainage of soils that drain too quickly; 5.) It improves the soil's ability to retain both moisture and nutrients; 6. It corrects many degraded or corrupted soils by tieing-up' a variety of toxic pollutants; 7.) It helps to buffer soils too acid or too alkaline; 8.) It protects plants from a variety of soil borne diseases and parasites; and 9.) It makes an excellent mulch. This sub-section is about the ways compost benefits the home garden. C.01.01: Q. How does compost compare to manure as a fertilizer? A. Manures and composts vary in terms of their nutrient content but both are relatively low in terms of the macro-nutrients. A typical analysis for manures and composts would be somewhere around 1-1-1. Compost, however, is an excellent source for the trace elements and contains anywhere from ten to fifty times as much of the micro-nutrients as the manures. C.02.*: The Construction of the Compost Heap C.02.00: Introduction to the Construction of the Compost Heap Composting offers the gardener a number of ways to improve the garden and to dispose of a lot of garden wastes without taking up space im the landfill; however, there is often reluctance to build a compost bin or heap. Some times there are problems in finding space. There are often problems in finding the time, energy or material to turn out the quantity of compost that is really required. An alternative is to buy commercial compost. It is generally of reasonable quality, moderately priced and readily available. The problem with commercial compost is that it may contain materials that don't belong in the garden. Making your own gives you total control over the contents. This is a how to' section covering the design, construction, and placement of compost bins and heaps. C.03.* Appropriate Starting Materials C.03.00: Introduction to Appropriate Starting Materials: This section deals with the starting materials that are appropriate for compost destined for the home garden. Those materials that are inappropriate or should be avoided are covered in Section C.04. There are many different appropriate starting materials that can be used to make first rate compost. The best compost, however, comes from combinations of starting materials without too much of any one thing. A mixture of different kinds of garden clippings combined with various uncooked scraps of this and that from the kitchen maybe combined with manure might be typical. This section is also about the combination and balance of various appropriate starting materials. C.03.01: Q. What is the C/N, Carbon - Nitrogen ratio about? A. The organic material that goes into compost is mostly a blend of carbohydrate-like material which is high in carbon and protein-like material which is high in nitrogen. The soil microorganisms use the carbohydrate-like material as their source for calories or energy. They use the protein-like material essentially as "building blocks" recognizing that they are single-celled organisms. The soil micro-organisms do best when their diet is about 20-25 parts of carbon to 1 part nitrogen and will work at maintaining this ratio. In practice, this most often means a volumn of "green" material such as grass clippings balanced with an equal volumn of "brown" material such as twiggy growth. C.04.*: Inappropriate Starting Materials C.04.00: Introduction to Inappropriate Starting Materials: The microorganisms that do the work of composting have the capacity, if given enough time and the right conditions, to decompose probably every natural material from both animal and vegetable sources. This includes the capacity to destroy most disease organisms, the eggs or spores of most garden pests, the eggs of most animal parasites and the spores or seeds of most weeds that might be attached to or carried by the starting materials. Composting is not an absolute process and there are some organic materials that simply shouldn't be added to compost. This sub-section is about those starting materials that are considered as inappropriate for home garden. C.05.*: Starting & Maintaining Compost Bins or Heaps C.05.00: Introduction to Starting & Maintaining Compost Bins or Heaps This sub-section is about the various steps in the starting and making of compost. This includes: 1.) Shredding, chipping, and other ways of cutting the starting material into smaller pieces to facilitate composting; 2.) The various ways to build a pile and/or to add new materials to an existing pile; 3.) The various ways to water and aerate the working material; 4.) The ways to monitor composting activity and how to tell when the material is ready for use; and 5.) Ways of screening the finished product to make it garden ready. C.06.*: Vermicomposting C.06.00: Introduction to Vermicomposting: Vermicomposting is composting using earthworms as the principal biological agents. The vermicomposting bins are relatively easy to make and set up. Maintenance and harvesting require little effort relative to that required for regular compost bins or heaps. The vermicomposting bins take up relatively little space, they are essentially odor-free, they fascinate kids and because the bins are small they can be brought inside out of the cold to allow for year round operation. While the yields of worm castings are relatively small, they are richer in nutrients than regular compost. Vermicomposting can be a good answer in those situation in which a regular compost bin or heap isn't an option. This sub-section is about: 1.) The design and construction of vermicomposting bins; 2.) The various ways to start and maintain the process; 3.) The various ways of harvesting and using the worm castings; and 4.) Some of the commercial sources for "Red Wigglers" [Eisensia Foetida} and "Red Worms" {Lumbricus Rebellus]. C.07.*: Sheet Composting C.07.00: Introduction to Sheet Composting Sheet composting is like mulching. A generous layer or "sheet" of raw or partially composted organic material is laid on top of the soil and allowed to decompose naturally. The organic material is left on the soil surface with the nutrients simply leaching into the soil below. This is an easy way of recycling the organic material back into the soil and to do so without disturbing the plant roots or the soil's microorganisms. In addition, the layer or "sheet" of organic material also works as a mulch. The problem is that sheet composting has little effect on the viability of any of the disease organisms or pests that might be present in the organic material. This may or may not be a problem, perhaps the better plan is to use finished compost as a mulch. This sub-section deals with the advantages and disadvantages of sheet composting and the restrictions imposed on sheet composting in the Certification Standards by the Organic Crop Improvement Association. C.08.*: Composting & Use of Compost, Misc. C.08.00: Introduction to Composting & Use of Compost, Misc. This is a temporary, catch-all sub-section for all those issues that don't seem to fit in the other Composting and Use of Compost sub-sections. Section D: Plant Nutrition D.00 : Introduction to Plant Nutrition The subject of plant nutrition is huge. This section is about all of the essential macro and micro mineral nutrients, the several ways these materials are assimilated and utilized by the plant, and the effects of over or under application. This section is also about the different materials that are used as fertilizers and their application. D.01.*: Essential Nutrients D.01.00: Introduction to Essential Elements The essential mineral macro nutrients are: nitrogen, phosphorus (measured as an ingredient of phosphoric acid or a phosphate), potassium, sulfur, and calcium. Note that nitrogen is not a mineral in the true sense of the word and is not present in the soil particles, per se. Nitrogen as a nutrient must come from organic matter, air, or synthetic chemical sources rather than from mineral or rock particles. The essential mineral micro nutrients or essential "trace elements" are: magnesium, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, boron and molybdenum. Certain plants also require: chlorine, aluminum, sodium, silica, or cobalt. It seems ironic that in an FAQ on organic gardening that so much attention needs to be placed on soil chemistry but plants do feed on mineral nutrients and these are chemical materials. There is a problem in semantics. Chemicals are so often equated with toxic and environmentally destructive products, and in many cases, this is true, but all material things are chemical. When a plant assimilates and uses an essential nutrient, it does not differentiate whether that nutrient came directly from a natural or synthetic source. The problem with synthetic fertilizers isn't that they contain toxic chemicals, per se. It is because they contain high levels of nutrients and they release those nutrients much too fast. Commercial ammonium sulfate, for example, contains about 21% nitrogen and releases all of this nitrogen over a period of a couple of days. Composted plant material runs closer to .5% nitrogen and the release is considerably slower going into several weeks. The nitrogen derived from the ammonium sulfate, however, is identical to the nitrogen derived from the compost. D.02.*: Nutritional Content of Fertilizers & Soil Amendments D.02.00: Introduction to Nutritional Content of Fertilizers & Soil Amendments Fertilizers are nutritional products used to improve the quantity or quality of plant growth. Soil amendments are products used to improve the properties of the soil. It is important that the distinctions be kept in mind. There have been laws on the books that have prevented the labeling of packaged manures and composts as "fertilizers" because of the low mineral content of these organic products. Specifically, there have been, and perhaps continue to be, laws in different locations that have required packaged manures and composts could only be sold as soil amendments and not as fertilizers. This, however, was mostly the result of marketing. Manures and composts are both fertilizers and soil amendments. Composts and manures are in a class by themselves as first rate soil amendments and as nutrients for the plants and the soil organisms. See Section C.02.* on Soil Properties and Soil Amendments. D.03.*: Release Rates D.03.00: Introduction to Release Rates Some of the synthetic fertilizers incorporate resins and/or other water insoluble materials to bind the mineral nutrients into the structure of the fertilizer particle or bead. The intent is to extend the release rate of the mineral content over a longer period of time. In essence, to slow down the release of the nutrients. All of the fertilizer salts are toxic to germinating seeds, plant roots, and the soil organisms at high levels. Slowing the release of the nutrients is a way around the build up of toxic concentrations. This sub-section is about the release rates of the various synthetic and organic products. Some of the organic products break down and release their nutrients faster than others. It is also about the relative toxicity of the essential plant nutrients. D.04.*: Nutrient uptake by the Roots D.04.00: Introduction to Nutrient uptake by the Roots Most of the mineral nutrients in the soil are in the form of mineral salts dissolved ina sort of soil soup. The roots feed on the soil soup and assimilate the mineral nutrients into the plant by osmosis. There are a couple of exceptions. The primary exception is nitrogen. Nitrogen is the one essential macro nutrient that is not a mineral. It must be in the nitrate form before it can be taken up by the roots. Nitrogen applied to the soil in the form of a protein from organic sources, ammonia or ammonium salts from organic or synthetic sources must first be decomposed or oxidized to the nitrite form and then decomposed or oxidized further to the nitrate form. This oxidation process is the work of special nitrobacteria resident in the soil. Legumes have nodules on their roots which contain "nitrogen fixing" bacteria that can take nitrogen directly from the air present in the soil to short-cut the normal nitrogen cycle. The second major exception is phosphsorus which is normally present in the soil in the form of relatively insoluble phosphate salts. Very little of the phosphate salt is released into the soil soup. Instead, trace amounts of the phosphate salt are released to the microscopic film of moisture surrounding the nutrient particles and the root hairs are left with the responsibsility of seeking out these phosphate salts. This pushes the root hairs to seek the phosphorus in new areas. This sub-section is about the ways the various essential nutrients feed through the roots. See sub-section D.05.* about foliar feeding and sub-section D.06.* about feeding through the mycorrhizae. D.05.*: Nutrient uptake by Foliar Feeding D.05.00: Introduction to Nutrient uptake by Foliar Feeding Foliar feeding offers some advantages in some specialized situations but it also offers problems or the threat of problems in general use. There is a fine line between the amount of nutrient needed for adequate feeding and the amount that is toxic to the foliar surface. This is particularly true with the micro nutrients. Foliar feeding is also not very cost or product efficient as a large amount of the nutrients simply drip off in the course of application or are washed off by the rain or watering. In some cases, foliar feeding is a good way of dealing with specialized problems. For, example, foliar feeding gives a way around root slow down in cold soil or problems with nutrients being tied up in the soil as a result of soil alkalinity. This sub-section is about the application of foliar feeding and the ways the plant assimilates nutrients from foliar feeding. D.06.*: Nutrient uptake through the Mycorrhizae D.06.00: Introduction to Nutrient uptake through the Mycorrhizae Mycorrhizae are symbiotic soil fungi, present in most soils, that attach themseselves directly onto the roots of most plants. They help the host plants absorb more water and nutreints while the host plants provide food for the fungi. Because the surface area of the hyphae, the feeding structures of the mycorrhizae, may be several hundred times the surface area of the roots, the mycorrhizae can feed on a larger soil mass and they can also feed more thoroughly. Mycorrhizae have the potential to be a central nutritional source for most plants. The mycorrhizae are also relatively fragile and can be damaged or destroyed by a number of soil conditions, cultural practices, high levels of macro or micro nutrients, and many of the synthetic fungicides. This sub-section is about the way the mycorrhizae work, their application and the various ways of protecting these beneficial organisms. D.07.*: Symptoms of Nutrient Distress D.07.00: Introduction to Symptoms of Nutrient Distress Plants show a variety of symptoms when fed with too much or too little of the essential mineral nutrienets. The symptoms of too much or too little caused by any one of the mineral nutrient sometimes overlap with the symptoms of too much or too little caused by another mineral nutrient. The sysmptoms might also overlap with a variety of other conditional problems. Interpreting symptoms of plant distress is mostly an issue of knowing the possibilities. Correcting nutritional problems is sometimes straight forward and involves no more than supplemental feeding. Sometimes, however, it can be complex. Alkaline soil or water, for example, can cause a variety of nutritional problems. Getting around the alkalinity may take a bit of doing. This sub-section is about the identification and correction of nutritional problems including problems of nutritional stress. D.08.*: Plant Nutrition, Misc. D.08.00: Introduction to Plant Nutrition, Misc. This is a temporary, catch-all sub-section for all those issues that don't seem to fit in the other Plant Nutrition Section E: Cultural Practices: E.00: Introduction to Cultural Practices Cultual practices includes all those things that a gardener does in the care of the garden. Many of the non-organic materials used by non-organic gardeners have the capacity to mask the importance of these cultural practices in the prevention and control of garden pests. In organic gardening, however, these cultural practices are of central importance and constitute the first line of defense against both plant disease and garden pests. This section deals with the principals and particulars of the various cultural practices for the home garden. Sub-section G.04.*, Prevention and/or Treatment of Plant & Soil Disease by cultural practices, deals with the use of specific cultural practices to prevent or correct specific disease problems. Sub-section H.03, Prevention and/or Treatment of Plant Pests using cultural practices, deals with the specific cultural practices to prevent or correct specific pests. E.01.*: Plant Selection E.01.00: Introduction to Plant Selection A gardener can avoid a lot of disease and pest problems by just selecting the right plants for the garden. A plant that is well suited for the specific growing conditions in the garden is usually more disease resistant and more tolerant of pest damage. Just because a plant looks handsome in a catalog or in some display garden, it doesn't mean that it will do well in your garden unless the conditions are the same. The plant that isn't doing well is often a prime candidate for disease and garden pests and, in turn, it may become a problem source for the entire garden. E.02.*: Companion Plantings E.02.00: Introduction to Companion Plantings Companion plants are used in several ways. The original way was to use specific plants in the garden to repel garden pests. Some time later it was found that certain plants had the ability to attract and to maintain populations of beneficial insects. There is now an appreciation that combinations of plant materials contribute to the overall content and working of the garden's ecosystem. This sub-section is about the use of companion plants and their contributions to the garden. E.03.*: Soil Preparation E.03.00: Introduction to Soil Preparation Really good garden soils don't just happen. They are crafted by the gardener working with nature. Quality is a function of the content and the texture. A good garden soil contains about two-thirds by volume rock particles of various sizes plus the complete range of the essential mineral nutrients at the appropriate levels, one-third by volume organic material which includes a large number of living organisms along with organic material in various stages of decomposition, plus moisture, plus a considerable amount of air space. The texture should be open enough to just accommodate penetration by air, water, and living organisms that sub-section and just closed enough for proper drainage. This sub-section is about the cultural; practices that go into the initial preparation and amending of the soil. Section C, "Soil Structure & Content; Soil Properties & Amendments; Soil Microorganisms; Soil Macro Organisms; Correcting Soil Problems; and Mulches" deals primarily with soil science. E.04.*: Garden layout E.04.00: Introduction to Garden Layout Garden design is normally only considered in the context of the esthetics or look of the garden but design is also an important element in the performance of the garden as well. This is particularly true in the case of the organic garden. For example, the organic gardener needs to keep an extra clean garden to minimize problems with disease and/or garden pests. The job of keeping the garden clean can be made easier or more difficult as a result of design. Over-crowding, a function of poor design, hinders the gardener's efforts to keep the garden clean. This sub-section is about the design of the garden in terms of esthetics and performance. E.05.*: Garden Editing E.05.00: Introduction to Garden editing Garden editing is the process of going through the garden plant by plant and evaluating their individual performance. Editing is usually limited to established perennials, shrubs, and trees. The issue is that if plants are not doing well or they are not serving their intended purpose, they may need to be tried in a different location or removed from the garden all together. It is a kind of fine tuning that is done in fine gardens for the sake of esthetics. Garden editing, however, is also a way to minimize or prevent plant disease or problems with garden pests. The plant that is not doing well is often more subject to disease or pest problems and should it become infected or infested, it could become a source of problems for the whole garden. This sub-section is about the processing of assessing plant performance and dealing with problem plants. E.06.*: Watering and Irrigation Practices E.06.00: Introduction to Watering and Irrigation Practices There are many ways to water a garden. The kind of watering system that is best is dependent upon the particulars of the garden and the ecosystem. If, for example, one gardens in an area that tends to be hot and dry, it is likely that Powdery Mildew is one of the major disease problems in that garden. There are many different kinds of Powdery Mildew but they all like and need dry foliage and low humidity to become established and to flourish. Simple overhead watering minimizes problems with Powdery Mildew. If one gardens in an area that is mostly cool and humid, it is likely that the major disease problems will be caused by those fungus organisms that like wet or moist foliage along with cool and humid conditions. Overhead watering is an area with these conditions would be an invitation to chronic disease problems. This sub-section is about the ways the different watering systems work with the various conditions in the garden. E.07.*: Sanitation practices E.07.00 Introduction to Sanitation Problems A few disease spores and plant pests can be found in even the healthiest of gardens. They are an integral part of nature. The disease spores are contested by the natural resistance of the plants. The plant pests are contested by the natural predators. The "health" garden is the garden in which there is a natural balance and the disease spores or plant pests do not have the upper hand. A lot of the build up of disease and plant pests takes place in the clutter of the garden. Accumulations of decomposing plant debris are breeding places for garden problems. Just keeping the garden clean is one of the best defenses against disease and pest problems. This sub-section is about the various ways to get and keep the garden clean. E.08.*: Pruning E.08.00: Introduction Sometimes thoughts on pruning are limited to shaping, removing spent or damaged plant material, promoting growth in a certain direction, or promoting more flowers or fruit. There are a host of other ways pruning can contribute to a better garden. Pruning is a particularly good way of preventing and correcting many disease and plant pest problems. This sub-section is about the many uses of pruning in the home garden. E.09.*: Problem Cultural Practices E.09.00: Introduction Some of the established cultural practices based on earlier options are now being challenged by current technology. "Digging in" organic material to amend the soil, for example, dates back to the start of recorded history. Now it is known that mycorrhizae, beneficial soil fungi, do better when the soil is not disturbed. Current thinking is that it would be a better practice to simply lay the organic material on top of the soil and let nature do the incorporation. (Earth worms move back and forth between the soil and the layer of organic material in their feeding process and they open the soil structure as they go.) Some of the products of current technology that are being promoted for the home garden may or may not be a good idea. Many of these new products are not regulated. The current fracas over the use of genetically engineered plants is a prime example. This sub-section is about those many cultural practices that are in dispute. E.10.*: Cultural Practices, Misc. E.10.00: Introduction to Cultural Practices, Misc. This is a temporary, catch-all sub-section for all those cultural practices that simply don't seem to fit in the other cultural practice categories. Section F: Botany for Home Gardeners F.00: Introduction to Botany for Home Gardeners The most frequently asked questions in gardening are the "HOWs, WHENs, and WHYs" about planting, pruning, pinching back and all the other things gardeners do directly with their plants. The answers to these kinds of questions come mostly from that part of botany that deals with plant anatomy, plant physiology and characteristic growth habits. This section is about those parts of botany as it applies to the care of garden plants. The sub-sections are: 1.) Cells and Tissue; Structure and Formation; 2.) Root Systems; Structure and Function; 3.) Stem Systems; Structure and Function; 4.)Leaves and Leaf Variations; Structure and Function; 5.) Flowers and Fruits; 6.) Seeds and Spores; 7.) Bulbs and Bulb-like Plants; 8.) Plant Propagation; 9.) Plant Genetics for Home Gardeners; and 10.) Botany for Gardeners, Misc. Appendix E contains a glossary of the Botanical terms. Home gardeners without a technical background might findBotany for Gardeners; An Introduction and Guide' by Brian Capon, Timber Press, a helpful companion text for this section. It is well written and beautifully illustrated. It is available in as a 220 page paper-back for about $20. Home gardeners with a technical background might find Introductory Plant Biology' by Kingsley Stern, Wm. C. Brown Publishers, more helpful as a companion text. It is more complete. Introductory Plant Biology' is one of the better text books for Botany students at the University level. It is also well written, beautifully illustrated, and a very solid reference. It is available as a 570 page paper-back at about $55. F.01.*: Cells and Tissue; Structure and Formation F.01.00: Introduction to Cells and Tissue; Structure and Formation Tissue is defined as an aggregation of cells having a common function. This sub-section is about: (1.) The physical structure of cells and the way cells are physically connected to make tissue; 2.) The ways these physical structures are formed; 3.) The ways these physical structures change in the course of growth and/or adaption; and (4) The characteristics of woody and herbaceous growth. This sub-section is of particular relevance as background material for pruning and pinching back'. F.02.*: Root Systems; Structure and Function F.02.00: Introduction to Root Systems; Structure, Formation and Function This sub-section is about roots, root structure and root systems; how they are formed, grow and adapt to the environment. This sub-section is also about mycorrhizae and the ways these fungus organisms work in concert with the roots. This sub-section is of particular relevance regarding plant feeding, transplanting, root pruning and the use of containerized plants. F.03.*: Stem Systems; Structure and Function F.03.00: Introduction to Stem Systems; Structure and Function This sub-section is about stems and the ways they are formed, grow and adapt. It is also about their characteristic structure and function, the ways they branch and produce the different kinds of buds and wood production. This sub-section is of particular relevance regarding pruning, dead-heading, and pinching back. F.04.*: Leaves and Leaf Variations; Structure and Function F.04.00: Introduction to Leaves and Leaf Variations; Structure and Function This sub-section is about leaves and leaf variations, how they develop, grow and adapt; the internal and external structure of leaves; abscission; and the processes of plant respiration, transpiration, and photosynthesis. This sub-section deals with many of the basic issues in plant physiology. It is of particular relevance to the home gardener in that it deals with matching the plant with the conditions of the garden. F.05.*: Flowers and Fruits F.05.00: Introduction to Flowers and Fruits This sub-section is about flowers, their development and structure; the various factors that promote the production of more flowers or larger flowers; Pollen and the fertilization process; and the way flowers generate seeds and fruit. This sub-section is of particular relevance to the home gardener in that it is about garden production. F.06.*: Seeds and Spores F.06.00: Introduction to Seeds and Spores This sub-section is about the process of plant reproduction as it occurs in nature. It includes, 1.) The development and structure of the various kinds of seeds and spores; 2.) Sexual reproduction via seeds and the germination process; 3.) Asexual reproduction via spores with the spores growing directly into plants; 4.) The ways to use and/or deal with seeds and spores in the garden; 5.) The issues of seed and spore viability and 6.) The issue of natural mutation. This sub-section is of particular relevance in terms of general garden maintenance. F.07.*: Bulbs and Bulb-like Plants F.07.00: Introduction to Bulbs and Bulb-like Plants There are a number of plants that are called, bulbs'. True bulbs are actually large buds with a small stem at the lower end surrounded by numerous fleshy leaves called scales'. An onion is an example of a true bulb. The roots come out of a solid, bottom basal plate. The bulb-like plants include corms and cormels, fleshy rhizomes, tubers and tuberous roots. Corms are bulb shaped, underground stem bases with a solid, bottom basal plate. Corms look like bulbs superficially but differ in that they are composed almost entirely of solid, Gladiolus bulbs' are really corms. Cormels are undeveloped corms. Rhizomoes are horizontal stems that grow underground just below the soil surface. They look like roots but they are characterized by having scale-like leaves and axillary buds at the growth nodes. Bearded iris bulbs' are really rhizomes. Tubers are outgrowths from internodes on underground stems. Like corms they are solid, stem tissue but without a bottom, basal plate. They are characterized by having growth buds of eyes'. A white potato is an example of a tuber. Tuberous roots are actually roots that are specialized to store nutrients. They grow out of the stem base and they are characterized by having no growth buds or eyes'. Dahlia bulbs' are really tuberous roots. True bulbs and bulb-like plants are water-saving and nutrient-saving organs to carry the plant to their flowering season. This sub-section is about the formation, structure and ways to garden with these bulbs and bulb like plants. F.08.*: Plant Propagation F.08.00: Introduction to Plant Propagation This sub-section is about the asexual reproduction of plants by the various propagating techniques and the uses of propagation in the home garden. Plant Propagation' by Philip McMillan Browse, A Fireside Book by Simon & Schuster, would be a good companion text. This sub-section covers 1.) Planting seeds, roots, bulbs and bulb-like plants; 2.) The various ways to propagate by layering, stem cutting or leaf slashing; 3.) The various ways to graft including budding; 4.) The use of the various propagating amenities; and 5.) The ways to use propagation in the home garden. The ability to be propagate gives the home gardener a number of worthwhile options. F.09.*: Plant Genetics for the Home Gardener F.09.00: Introduction to Plant Genetics for the Home Gardener Genetics is that branch of biology that studies inherited characteristics. A major study and with the advent of DNA technology and genetic engineering a very complicated one as well. Genetics is mostly a study for plant breeders and hybridizers looking for special characteristics. There are, however, genetic issues that are important to the home gardener. This sub-section deals with the ways characteristics are passed on to the descendants, the ways chromosomes are sorted out in mitosis and meiosis, the issues of dominant and recessive characteristics, hybrid nomenclature, and plant mutation. F.10.*: Botany for Gardeners, Misc. F.10.00: Introduction to Botany for gardeners, Misc. This is a temporary, catch-all sub-section for all those issues that don't seem to fit in the other Botany for Home Gardeners categories Section G: Plant and Soil Disease G.00: Introduction to Plant and Soil Disease Plant disease is a huge and complex subject. This section deals with the principles of disease control, the many different kinds of plant and soil diseases, the characteristics and symptoms of disease, the various ways of preventing and/or treating plant disease and soil disease, the characteristics of the various fungicides and bactericides, the problems with the use of these materials plus an assortment of related issues. A lot of material! It may be necessary to divide and restructure this section at some future date. G.01.*: The Principles of Disease Control G.01.00: Introduction to the Principals of Disease Control There are huge numbers of fungi, bacteria, and virus organisms in the garden. The vast majority of these microorganisms are beneficial and essential for the health of the garden. A very small minority of these microorganisms however are also the cause of the various diseases. All of the garden fungicides and bactericides used to prevent or to control plant disease or soil disease are also toxic to at least some of the beneficial microorganisms. Plant disease should be prevented and controlled primarily by cultural practices. There are a number of organically acceptable fungicides and bactericides that can be used as backups in the event that the cultural practices are not able to give an acceptable level of control. The gardener needs to articulate the meaning of "an acceptable level of control". It is not realistic to expect the garden to be totally disease free. Good cultural practices will handle the bulk of the disease problems on an every day basis. Dependent on a lot of things there may be an outbreak of disease in an isolated spot or perhaps in several spots. Good cultural practices can correct many problems. The gardener has to deal with the amount of disease that can be tolerated before going to the use of the organically acceptable fungicides or bactericides. For the most part, it involves trust in the cultural practices to do the job. This sub-section is about the various ways of telling when it is appropriate to use different levels of control. G.02.*: Characteristics and Symptoms of Plant & Soil Disease G.02.00: Introduction to Characteristics & Symptoms of Plant & Soil Disease Some of the symptoms of a plant or soil disease are very characteristic which makes the identification of the particular disease relatively straight forward and simple. Some of the other symptoms, however, are very general and can be misleading. Specifically, some of the symptoms of one disease look like the symptoms of another disease or even symptoms of other kinds of plant distress. Sometimes it takes the resources of a plant pathologist to make a positive identification. This sub-section is about the various symptoms of plant and soil disease and the different ways of telling if the problems are one of disease or other factors. G.03.*: Life Cycles & Biology of Disease Organisms G.03.00: Introduction to Life Cycles & Biology of Disease Organisms The more one knows about the things that make life comfortable or miserable for the various pathogens, the better able one is to devise an effective strategy for their control. The fungus organism that causes Powdery Mildew on roses, for example, likes dry foliage and low humidity. Simply using overhead watering and occasionally washing the foliage with a blast from the hose helps to prevent Powdery Mildew on roses. A daily washing, especially with some added garden friendly soap, makes an effective treatment. This sub-section is about the various pathogens and the things that make them flourish or languish. G.04.*: Prevention and/or Treatment of Plant & Soil Disease by Cultural Practices G.04.00: Introduction to Prevention and/or Treatment of Plant & Soil Disease by Cultural Practices There are ten cultural practices that constitute the first line of defense against plant and soil disease: 1.) Use disease resistant varieties; 2.) Use certified and disease-free planting material; 3.) Plant in appropriate sites with appropriate spacing; 4.) Maintain an even and appropriate water supply; 5.) Remove diseased plants or cut out diseased portions when first seen; 6.) Work at preventing the spread of pathogens from known infected areas; 7.) Rotate crops and avoid planting closely related plants in the same place year after year; 8.) Keep weeds under control both in your garden and in adjacent areas; 9.) Use only "hot" composted plant material and; 10.) Clean-up infected soil. Section E covers the principals of these basic cultural practices. This particular sub-section deals with the use of specific cultural practices to prevent or correct specific disease problems. See Section E. G.05.*: Prevention and/or Treatment of Plant & Soil Disease by OCIA Approved Fungicides and Bactericides G.05.00: Introduction to the Prevention and/or Treatment of Plant & Soil Disease by OCIA Approved Fungicides and Bactericides The Organic Crops Improvement Association is an organization of independent farmers who produce "organic" crops. The various regulatory agencies of government and the various trade associations could not come up with a standard acceptable to all so the OCIA organized and drafted their own. The OCIA's International Certification Standard was well thought out, they got good input from many reliable sources, and the Standard became recognized by essentially every regulatory agency and trade association in the world. The International Certification Standard lists, among other things, all of the commercial and generally used pesticides and classifies these materials as being organically "acceptable", "restricted" or "prohibited" as a result of their effect on the environment and their safety for the consumer. Those materials that are "prohibited" probably don't belong in the home garden. The fungicides and bactericides listed in the International Standard as "acceptable" are elemental sulfur, lime-sulfur, or Bordeaux mixes. Fungicidal soaps and certain botanicals are considered "acceptable" as well. Some of these materials, however, will burn the foliage if they are not used as directed and they should be used primarily as back-ups to the cultural practices. They are not trouble free. Farmers growing organic crops and some commercial growers use these OCIA "acceptable" materials as their primary control measures because they are cost effective and easy to use. The cultural practices would give them better control but they would be too labor intensive in a large scale operation. This sub-section is about the ways to use these materials and their limitations. G.06.*: Prevention and/or Treatment of Plant & Soil Disease by Alternative Materials or Methods G.06.00: Introduction to the Prevention and/or Treatment of Plant and Soil Disease by Alternative Materials or Methods Some of the simple home remedies touted as being effective for the prevention or control of plant disease simply don't work. There are, however, a number that do. Some of the home remedies that do work may or may not cause other problems. For example, one can only use so much baking soda for treating powdery mildew before it starts to create alkalinity problems in the soil. But the same can be said about some of the high tech alternatives. Both the home remedies and the high tech alternative materials and methods should be used with caution. The best basic approach is to first use cultural practices to prevent or control plant disease and to use OCIA approved materials or methods as a back up. In the event that the disease problems are not resolved, to then consider the use of alternative materials and methods. There are clearly some alternative methods or materials that do a good job and are appropriate for the home garden. This sub-section is about the use of these alternative methods and materials. G.07.*: Characteristics of Fungicides & Bactericides G.07.00: Introduction to Characteristics of Fungicides and Bactericides This sub-section is about the physical and chemical characteristics of the various garden fungicides and bactericides. It is also about their relative toxicities. Specifically, their effects on the beneficial organisms and the ecosystems as a whole, the relative dangers of using these materials or having them around the home, and their suitability for use on edible crops or on house plants inside the home. The toxicity of the various pesticides is often measured in terms of MLD50 which stands for the Minimum Lethal Dose that will kill 50% of the test animals. It is a figure of mg. of the test material per kg. of body weight for the test animals. The lower the MLD50, the higher the toxicity. See Section G.09.* regarding the MLD50 ratings of the various synthetic fungicides. G.08.*: Plant & Soil Disease, Misc. G.08.00: Introduction to Plant & Soil Disease, Misc. This is a temporary, catch-all sub-section for all of those issues that don't seem to fit in the other Plant & Soil Disease categories. Section H: Plant & Soil Pests; Treatment & Prevention H.00: Introduction to Plant & Soil Pests; Treatment and Prevention Garden pests is a very big subject. This section deals with : 1.) The principals and issues of effective pest control; 2.) The characteristics and life-cycles of the many different kinds of garden pests; 3.) The characteristics and importance of the damage caused by these various garden pests; 4.) The various kinds of control agents and the way these agents can be used to prevent or control garden pests; 5.) The characteristics and limitations of these control agents; 6.) The relative toxicity of the various garden pesticides and the way these materials impact on the ecosystem of the home garden; and 7.) An assortment of related issues. A huge amount of material! H.01.*: Principals of Pest Control H.01.00: Introduction to Principals of Pest Control Pests are defined in the dictionary as those creatures that are "troublesome or destructive". The garden pests covered in this section, while mostly insect, range from the microscopic nematodes all the way up to burrowing rodents. Pest control of this widely diverse group requires a host of different methods and/or materials. "Common-Sense Pest Control" by Olkowski, Daar, and Olkowski list the following as the attributes for the ideal method and/or material: 1.) Least disruptive of natural controls; 2.) Least hazardous to human health; 3.) Least toxic to nontarget organisms; 4.) Least damaging to the general environment; 5.) Most likely to produce a permanent reduction of the pest population; 6.) Easiest to carry out effectively; and 7.) Most cost-effective over the short and long terms. The natural controls already in place in a healthy ecosystem have these ideal attributes. The core pest control issue is that every living organism is subject to natural controls. This sub-section is about the ways these natural controls can be used or incorporated into a pest control program for the home garden. The most important natural controls in the garden are: climate and weather, food and habitat, pathogens, predators, and parasites. These are all things that can be used in a program of pest management. H.02.*: Life Cycles & Biology of Garden Pests H.02.00: Introduction to Life Cycles & Biology of Garden Pests Many of the pest control operations, including the application of materials or the exercise of cultural practices, are scheduled around the life cycles of the various living organisms in the garden. It is either trying to hit the target organisms when they are the most vulnerable or trying to avoid disrupting the predators of the target organisms or the accompanying beneficial companions. For example, Japanese Beetles are treated most effectively when they are still grubs in the lawn rather than once they have become beetles and on the roses. Further, Bacillus thuringienses (BT) is highly effective against a variety of feeding caterpillars, it is worthless when applied after the caterpillars have become moths or butterflies. Some times pest control operations are targeted to a time of day or a particular climatic condition to get at the target organisms when they are out of hiding or when the predators or beneficial organisms will be least disrupted. Thrips on roses, for example, come out of the blossoms to mate early in the morning, mostly on quiet days, before many of the bees arrive to harvest the pollen. This sub-section is about the life cycles and life habits of garden pests, their predators, and the accompanying companion beneficials. H.03.*: Prevention and Treatment of Garden Pests using Cultural Practices H.03.00: Introduction to Prevention and Treatment of Garden Pests Using Cultural Practices There are so many different kinds of garden pests and most of them can be suppressed by a handful of cultural practices. The most important cultural practices for the home garden are listed in Section B. That section addresses the principals of those cultural practices - this sub-section addresses the application for the specific garden pest. H.04.*: Prevention and Treatment of Garden Pests using Beneficial Organisms H.04.00: Introduction to Prevention and Treatment of Garden Pests using Beneficial Organisms "Common-Sense Pest Control" by Olkowski, Daar, and Olkowski calls predatory insects "the lions, wolves, sharks, barracudas, hawks and shrikes of the insect world". The greatest predators of garden pests, however, are the spiders and there are many other living creatures that are highly effective in providing natural controls of the various garden pests. The challenge is in the making of a garden environment that will attract and maintain a resident population of the beneficial organisms. Simply buying and releasing occasional packages of beneficial organisms without creating the right environment doesn't do the job. Most of the Agricultural regulatory agencies have lists of suppliers who sell beneficial organisms suited for the different climates. Bringing beneficial organisms into a garden with a wholesome environment can be very productive. For the most part, however, the beneficials will come into a garden and establish residence by their own free will provided they are lucky enough to find an environment to their liking which means an environment with at least some pest organisms as a food source. The gardener shouldn't expect beneficial organisms to come to an empty garden. "Common-Sense Pest Control" and "An Introduction to Biological Control" by van den Bosch, are good references on the beneficial organisms. (See Appendix B, Recommended Reading) This sub-section is about the various beneficial organisms and building an attractive garden environment. H.05.*: Prevention and Treatment of Garden Pests using Biological Pesticides H.05.00: Introduction to Prevention and Treatment of Garden Pests using Biological Pesticides There are three kinds of biological pesticides: the microbial pesticides, the pheromones, and the insect growth regulators or IGRs. The microbrial pesticides are used to suppress weeds, plant diseases as well as insects; pheromones and IGRs are used only against insects. They are "new wave" pesticides combining effectiveness, safety, and biodegradability. The MICROBIAL PESTICIDES contain living micro-organisms or the toxins they produce as active ingredients. They can be algae, bacteria, fungi, parasitic nematodes, protozoa or viruses. Bacillus thuringienses or BT is an example of a microbial pesticide. On the plus side, they are very effective against the target organisms, including some pests difficult to control by other means; they are seemingly non-toxic to humans, domestic animals and wildlife; they are environmentally friendly and they biodegrade readily. Most of the microbial pesticides are approved for use on organic crops by the OCIA and can be used up to the day of harvest. On the negative side, they are tricky to use effectively, they are slow and usually require multiple applications, the commercial preparations do not store well, and some are the products of genetic engineering making them inappropriate in an organic program. The PHEROMONES are the "perfumes" emitted by insects and other organisms to communicate with other members of the same species. The strongest pheromones are the materials used by the insects to attract members of the opposite sex for purposes of mating. Pheromone traps are used to monitor for the presence of pests, as control tools to capture insects, and as confusants to disrupt insect mating. The pheromones are effective, virtually non-toxic, and environmentally friendly. The down side is that they can attract pests into the garden and there are some un-resolved clearance issues about their use in the home garden. The INSECT GROWTH REGULATOR or IGRs are materials that mimic or interfere with the natural hormones that regulate an insect's development stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult. IGRs from synthetic sources are prohibited for use on organic crops by the OCIA. Indol acetic acid, a natural IGR is allowed. Like the pheromones, they are effective, virtually non-toxic when used as directed, seemingly neutral to the environment and have some un-resolved clearance issues regarding their use in the home garden. This sub-section is about the selection, use and limitations of these biodynamic products in the home garden. H.05.01: Q. What's the best way to control Japanese Beetles? A.: Japanese Beetles, Popillia japonica, overwinter in the soil as grubs feeding on the roots of a wide variety of grasses in both lawns and pastures. Once they have completed their life-cycle as grubs and pupa, they emerge as adults that feed on an even wider variety of plant materials. Generally, they consume leaf tissue between the veins, as well as portions of blossoms and fruit. Mated females burrow into the ground to a depth of about 3" to lay the fertilized eggs which hatch into grubs in about two weeks. The grubs do their most feeding damage in September and October and emerge as adults anywhere from early Spring to early Summer dependent upon the weather. They are most vulnerable to control measures in the grub stage using beneficial nematodes. The eggs are subject to desiccation and keeping the top surface of the grass areas dry is reasonably effective as a preventive measure. If drainage tends to be slow, increase drainage by aeration or adding organic material to the soil. The grubs are subject to beneficial nematodes and milky spore disease bacteria. The Sc strains of the beneficial nematodes seem to do a better job and are faster than milky spore disease bacteria. The adult form is best controlled by traps or hand picking. Hand picking seems the more effective. It is best done at first light before the adults are fully active. Place a tarp under the infested plant and shake the foliage. Many of the 'sleepy eyed' adults simply fall off at that time of day into the tarp for easier collection. The captured adults are then drowned in a bucket of soapy water. "Common-Sense Pest Control" by Olkowski, Daar, and Olkowski; (Newton, Ct.: Taunton Press, 1991) has a good write-up on the control measures and life-cycles of the Japanese Beetle. H.06.*: Prevention and Treatment of Garden Pests using Traps & Barriers H.06.00: Introduction to Prevention and Treatment of Garden Pests using Traps and Barriers This sub-section is about the design, construction and use of the various traps and barriers for use in the home garden. H.07.*: Prevention and Treatment of Garden Pests using Pesticides H.07.00: Introduction to Treatment and Prevention of Garden Pests using Pesticides A person can have a relatively pest-free home garden without using pesticides of any sort by simply selecting the right site, the right plants and following the right cultural practices. Using environmentally friendly pesticides in the right way gives the home gardener an additional resource. This sub-section is about the selection of the right environmentally friendly pesticide and its application. Particular attention is given to the practice of monitoring pest populations as a guide for the timing of the applications and the practice of spot treatment. H.08.*: Characteristics of Pesticides H.08.00: Introduction to Characteristics of Pesticides Pesticides are often classified on the basis of their target. That is insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc. Sometimes pesticides are classified as being "organic" or "chemical". These terms often lead to different interpretations. In most cases, the term "organic" is used to convey that the material is safe to use, easy on the non-target organisms, readily biodegradable, environmentally friendly, and comes from natural sources. In most cases, the sense of that definition is accurate - but, there are exceptions. Nicotine, for example, is an insecticide that has been used for many years. It is from natural sources. It also biodegrades very rapidly. It is, however, very toxic, dangerous to handle, and a threat to every insect in the garden. The OCIA, the organization responsible for writing and enforcing the Certification Standards, prohibit the use of nicotine at any time on organic crops. Conversely, the term "chemical" is often used to convey that the material is dangerous to use, environmentally destructive, and a hazardous factory product. In most cases, the sense of that definition is also accurate. But, again, there are exceptions. Sulfur, for example, is a mineral that is mined from the ground. It is also one of the essential plant nutrients. Sulfur is relatively safe to handle, it is an effective insecticide, miticide, and fungicide, it is relatively non-toxic to non-target organisms and it is relatively environmentally friendly. Sulfur does not biodegrade because it is also one of the basic chemical elements. The OCIA gives sulfur a Restricted rating for use on organic crops, "Acceptable for foliar use as an insecticide, fungicide or fertilizer. Direct application to the soil is discouraged. Must be from a mined source. Prohibited for post-harvest treatment". This sub-section deals with the toxicity, biodegradability and stability of the various pesticides. Specifically, those characteristics that determine if the material is or is not appropriate in an organic program. H.08.01: Q.: What is biomagnification? A.: When a number of plant-feeding organisms feed on plant material that has been treated with a toxic pesticide, most of the organisms are killed but a few survive. In some cases, the survivors are able to metabolize or void the toxic material. In other cases, it is stored in the pest's tissue. If a predator were to feed on a number of these plant-feeding survivors, all of the stored material is then made a part of the predator's system. Sometimes the predators are able to metabolize or void this collective quantity - sometimes it gets stored again but now it is stored in the one predator. The pesticide has been "biomagnified" as it moved up the food chain. The problem, of course, is that man is at the top of most food chains. H.08.02: Q.: How is toxicity of pesticides measured? A.: The pesticide is fed to laboratory animals under controlled conditions. Toxicity is measured in terms of milligrams of the test material per kilogram of body weight for the test animals. The test is to kill 50% of the test animals. This measures acute toxicity and it is called LD50 for "lethal dose for 50%." The lower the number, the higher the toxicity. H.08.03: Q.: What is the LD50 for some common pesticides? A: "Pests of the Garden & Small Farm" by Mary Louise Flint, University of California publication, lists the LD50 figures for the following pesticdes: Nicotine; "BLACK LEAF 40"; Insecticide; LD50 @ 55 Rotenone; Insecticide; LD50 @ 132 Bordeaux: Fungicide; LD50 @ 300 DIAZINON; Insecticide; LD50 @ 300 2,4-D; Herbicide; LD50 @ 375 Carbaryl; "SEVIN"; Insecticide; LD50 @ 500 Acephate; "ORTHENE"; Insecticde; LD50 @ 866 Copper Hydroxide; "KOCIDE"; Fungicide; LD50 @ 1,000 Copper Oxychloride Sulfate; "C-O-C-S"; Fungicide; LD50 @ 1,000 Ryania; Insecticide; LD50 @ 1,200 MALATHION; Insecticide; LD50 @ 1375 Pyrethrum; Insectiide; LD50 @ 1,500 Sabadilla; Insectidie; LD50 @ 4,000 Glyphosate; "ROUND-UP"; Herbicide; LD50 @ 4,300 Cryolite; Insecticide; LD50 @ 10,000 Benomyl; "BENLATE"; Fungicide; LD50 @ >10,000 Bacillus thuringiensis; "DIPEL"; Insecticde; LD50 @15,000 H.08.04: Q.: What are the "three Rs and an S"? A.: Dr. Donald Dahlsten, an entomologist from the University of California in Berkeley, coined the expression "three Rs and an S" to summarize the problems of using toxic synthetic insecticides. The three Rs are: 1.)residue - regarding the quantities of toxic materials that are residual in the environment; 2.) resurgence - as applications of toxic pesticides kill off some of the target organisms they also kill off great numbers of the natural predators giving the surviving target organisms a better chance to bounce back; and 3.) Resistance - pests that survive an application of a toxic pesticide become better able to survive subsequent applications of the same pesticide. Once a pest has developed a resistance to one class of chemicals, it often develops resistance to other pesticides as well. The S stands for secondary outbreaks. Killing off a target organism often means killing off some of the natural controls. A pest that had been a minor problem before the application of the pesticide can sometimes become a more serious problem after the natural controls are damaged or destroyed. H.09.*: Plant & Soil Pests, Misc. H.09.00: Introduction to Plant & Soil Pests, Misc. This is a temporary, catch all sub-section for all those issues that don't seem to fit in the other Plant & Soil Pests; Treatment and Prevention categories. Section I: Weeds, Weed Prevention, and Weed Control I.00: Introduction to Weeds, Weed Prevention, and Weed Control There is the adage that a weed is simply "a plant out of place." There is a quotation in Celia Thaxter's "An Island Garden" attributed to a Mrs. Getty that goes, "A better definition would be, ‘A plant which has an innate disposition to GET into the wrong place . . . the essence of weed character - in plants as in men. If you glance through your botanical books you will see often added to certain names, ‘ a troublesome weed'. It is not its being venomous or ugly, but its being impertinent - thrusting itself where it has no business and hindering other people's business [that makes a plant into a weed]". The U.S. Bureau of Land Management, while not as poetic, defines weeds as "non-native plants that have adapted to a new area." They are in balance with nature in their native areas where they are held in check by the various indigenous pests and pathogens. In essence, weeds are a problem BECAUSE they are out of place. This section is about weeds and their place in the garden, weed biology, weed prevention, and weed control. I.01.*: Weed Biology; Characteristics and Growth Habits I.01.00: Introduction to Weed Biology; Characteristics & Growth Habits Annual weeds reproduce only by seed and live just one season. In a period as short as a few weeks or months, they germinate, shoot up, blossom, set seed and die. Winter annuals germinate in the fall, mature in the winter, and die early summer. The seeds remain dormant until the fall. Summer annuals germinate in the spring, mature in the summer, and die in the fall. The seeds remain dormant until the spring. Annual weeds characteristically produce a great number of seeds. These seeds have the ability to become established in a wide range of environments and to remain viable over an extended period of time. Control of annual weeds, for the most part, is dependent upon the control of the seeds. Biennial weeds reproduce by seed and live for two growing seasons. They sprout and undergo vegetative growth during the first season, then flower, set seed and die in the following season. Control of biennial weeds is centered on control of the plant in the first growing season before it has a chance to set seed. Perennial weeds reproduce both by seed and vegetatively. They are the "thugs" of the garden and they can take over large areas of the soil in little time. They produce new top growth from buds located on the root stock. The root stock can be bulbs, tubers, rhizomes, stolons, crowns or taproots. Control of perennial weeds is dependent upon the control of the root stock buds. This sub-section is about the ways weeds, as a group, impact on the garden and the biology and/or ecology of specific weeds in the home garden. Appendix B, the Recommended Reading section of this FAQ, also lists a number of references. Knowing the characteristics and life-cycles of those plants counted as weeds is the starting point in their control. I.01.01: Q.: What's the best control for Horse Tail? A.: Equisetum or Horse Tail is an invasive perennial that is closely related to the ferns. It grows on extensive and fragile rhizomes. They are extremely difficult to remove from the soil once they have become established. Any of the remaining bud bearing stem or rhizome pieces have the potential to become new plants. Map out the area with the equisetum and plan to garden elsewhere until the problem can be finally resolved. Remove all of the top growth, rake up any stem pieces, and get that material out of the garden. Dig out as much of the rhizome system as possible. Repeat the process when you see new equisetum stems breaking the soil surface. Be prepared to repeat the removal of top growth and the digging out of the rhizomes a number of times. Eventually, the rhizomes weaken and die. I.02.*: Weed Prevention I.02.00: Introduction to Weed Prevention This sub-section is for materials on the various ways to prevent or minimize weed problems in the garden. For the most part, weed prevention involves the use of a physical barrier to keep weeds and their seeds away from the garden soil. This section is mostly about the different materials that are appropriate as barriers and the ways they should be used. Cultural practices to prevent or to minimize weed problems are included as well. I.02.01: Q. Does composting really kill weed seeds? A. Hot composting will kill most weed seeds. Cold composting will not. All areas of the compost pile must heat up to at least 140 F, the "thermal death point", to kill the seeds. I.02.02: Q. What about the use of newspaper to prevent weeds? A. Newspaper is effective as a barrier keeping incoming weed seeds away from the soil and, at the same time, keeping light away from the weed seeds already present. The soil is first hand weeded, cleaned, raked smooth, and watered. Three to four days later, the soil is again hand weeded to clean up any weeds that might have sprouted as a result of the disturbance to the soil and watering. Then lay down about six layers of newspaper overlapping so there are no thin spots. Cover with a 2"-3" layer of well composted organic material as a mulch and give a light soaking. The compost mulch looks better, it keep the newspaper in place and it provides a measure of protection. At one time, newspaper ink was petroleum based and would have injured the soil environment. The newer inks are based on vegetable oils and are considered O.K. The use of newspaper with colored inks should be avoided. I.03.*: Hand Weeding I.03.00: Introduction to Hand Weeding This sub-section is about the various ways to control weeds by pulling or digging out, cultivating, and/or mowing. It is about the advantages and disadvantages of these various mechanical control methods and when their use is appropriate. I.03.01: Q.: What would happen if I just kept chopping off the top growth? A: Top growth generates plant nutrients which, for the most part, are stored in the roots. Chopping off top growth of weeds is another way to achieve control _if_ you chop at the right time. In the case of annuals, remove the top growth just before it sets seed. Plant energy at that time is being channeled into flower and seed embryo production with little left over to replace top growth. In the case of perennials, the removal of top growth forces the roots to give up nutrients to develop new stems and leaves. There is a limit to how many times roots can initiate new foliage in a single season. I.04.*: Weed Control using fire and/or heat I.04.00: Introduction to Weed Control using fire and/or heat This sub-section is about the various ways to use fire and/or heat to control weeds in the home garden. Primarily, this includes soil solariazation and flaming. Some material on prescribed burning is also included, not because it is considered an appropriate control measure in home gardens, but because some of the issues have relevance to a broader understanding of weeds and their control. Soil solarization is a clean, environmentally friendly and efficient way to clean up seed infested soils prior to planting. Flaming, if done properly, can be a clean, environmentally friendly, and efficient way to control seedlings and adult plants. Prescribed burning is primary for the rejuvenation or clearing of prairies, meadows, or open fields. . . not something to be done by the casual home gardener! I.04.01: Q.: What's the procedure for soil solarization? A.: Soil solarization is straight forward and effective. The "thermal death point" of weeds is 140 F (60 C). Solarization uses trapped solar energy to raise the soil temperature to that level. Wait until the average daytime temperatures are 85 F (29 C) or higher. Cultivate and rake the soil level, remove the large clods, and irrigate well. Wait 2 weeks for surface seeds to germinate, again cultivate and rake smooth. Give another deep irrigation and tarp with 2 mil clear plastic. Bury the edges of the plastic to give a tight seal and solarize for 4 weeks. Once the plastic is removed and the soil has dried somewhat, it is ready for planting. Appendix B cites a concise booklet by Hesketh and Elmore that spells out the details. I.05.*: Plants as a means of Weed Control I.05.00: Introduction to Plants as a means of Weed Control It is well understood that weeds are a problem in gardens because they compete with the intended plants for nutrients, moisture, light, and site. It is also true that the intended plants can and do compete with the weeds. Complementary plantings have been defined as plantings that "occupy an environment or space _not_ occupied by crop plants which would otherwise be open for invasion...by weeds...and other uninvited guests". Competitive plantings are those plantings installed deliberately to reduce the nutrients, moisture, or light to control weeds. This sub-section is for material on the use of complementary and competitive plants in the home garden as control agents for weeds. I.05.01: Q.: What is "allelopathy"? A: The term "allelopathy" refers to the ability of certain plants to produce toxic substances that inhibit the growth of certain other neighboring plants. There are a number of plants that show alleopathic effects on weeds. See "Common-Sense Pest Control" by Olkowski, Daar & Olkowski. I.06.*: Miscellaneous Biological Means of Weed Control I.06.00: Introduction to Biological Means of Weed Control Biological control includes the use of insects, pathogens, fish, geese and grazing animals to suppress weeds. Goats and/or geese have been used for centuries to suppress weeds in gardens just as fish have been used to suppress aquatic weeds. The practice of using beneficial insects or micro organisms to suppress weeds is relatively new. This sub-section is for materials on all of these biological agents to suppress weeds in the home garden. I.06.01: Q.: Are mycoherbicides O.K. to use in the home garden? A.: Mycoherbicides are living fungi or their products and they are useful in suppressing certain weeds. Apparently they are relatively target specific and wouldn't work in generalized applications. I.07.*: Chemical Weed Control I.07.00: Introduction to Chemical Weed Control All of the synthetic herbicides are prohibited for use on the land or crops in the Certified Organic Crop program. Herbicidal soaps and horticultural oils are the only herbicides that are permitted on Certified Crops or are considered appropriate for use in organic home gardens. This sub-section is about the various ways to use these materials. I.07.01: What's a good and easy way to get rid of Poison Ivy? There is no good and easy way to get rid of Poison Ivy. The plant, _Rhus radians_, is a woody perennial that may grow as a small shrub or a high-climbing vine. It reproduces as shoots off of creeping roots and by seed. The toxin that causes the blistering, urushiol, is contained in all parts of the plant. It is very potent and the material resists composting. It can stay active for a long time. Physical contact with Poison Ivy should be avoided and if you are going to work with the plant you should wear protective clothing. If you are trying to weed by hand, keep in mind that every last piece of remaining root with a growth bud has the potential to make a new plant. Also, Poison Ivy shouldn't be burned -the toxin can be carried by the soot particles and inhaled. This could cause a strong reaction. Goats will eat Poison Ivy but then they need to be bathed and its back to the issue of avoiding physical contact with the urushiol. The OCIA's International Certification Standard prohibits the use of all synthetic herbicides on certified land. (See Appendix A). The home remedy herbicides based on salt or acid can do serious harm to the soil organisms and they should be avoided. On a practical basis, spot application of Roundup may make the most sense. It is relatively safe to use but it is certainly not organic. If you are going to use Roundup, apply the material as a very coarse spray to minimize drift or swab the material directly onto the foliage. Keep it off everything except the foliage and don't soak the soil. Apply when the plant is in the fruit or flowering stage. The plant needs to be active to translocate the material from the foliage to the roots. If the ivy has grown into a large canopy, clip the vines 2-3 feet above the ground, two weeks later spot treat the stubs and two weeks later spot treat again. Read and follow the directions on the label. Keep the material off of everything except the Poison Ivy. Wear protective clothing and avoid physical contact with the Ivy and with the Roundup as much as possible. Cut up, bag and seal all of the pieces and put it out in the trash. Keep it out of your compost pile. Disinfect your tools, wash or discard the protective clothing. Shower immediately after working with Poison Ivy using lots of soap and water. Keep ahead of Poison Ivy. It's the older plants that are the more difficult. I.08.*: Weeds, Weed Prevention and Weed Control, Misc. I.08.00: Introduction to Weeds, Weed Prevention & Weed Control This is a temporary, catch-all sub-section for all those issues about weeds that simply don't seem to fit in the other weed categories. Section J: Gardening for Wildlife: J.00: Introduction to Gardening for Wildlife This section is about the various ways to attract wildlife into the garden. There are a number of reasons to want wildlife in the garden: 1.) The sights and sounds of wildlife in the garden delight the senses; 2.) Their presence helps pest control and; 3.) The garden provides wildlife with the basic necessities of life - food, water, shelter, cover and a place to raise their young. "The Naturalist's Garden" by John Feltwell says, "If you want to attract wildlife into the garden, it is well to encourage the insects - few of which are pests." Ironically, Section H.06 of this FAQ deals with the various ways of keeping "problem" pests out of the garden by the use of barriers or keeping them off the plants by the use of netting and covers. Section J.01, which is mostly on the use of various companion plants to attract wildlife into the garden also contains material on the use of companion plants to repel "problem" pests. There is a fine line that separates those creatures which are often considered as "problem" from those often considered as "beneficial." This section covers: 1.) That fine line between "problem" and "beneficial" wildlife; 2.) The use of companion plants in the garden to attract a wide variety of wildlife, including insects; 3.) The various ways to attract bees and other pollinators into the garden; 4.) The use of trees, shrubs, and brush as a source of food, shelter and cover to attract and maintain wildlife; 5.) The design, construction, and maintenance of water features and other garden structures to attract and to maintain wildlife; 6.) The effects of garden pesticide usage on wildlife and 7.) Reasons and ways to garden neighboring rustic lands. J.01.*: The Use of Companion Plants in the Garden to Attract Wildlife J.01.00: Introduction to the Use of Companion Plants in the Garden to Attract Wildlife One of the resource horticulturist for this FAQ was asked for the best way to attract wildlife into the garden. He answered, partly in jest, "plant vegetables". Plants do attract wildlife. Some wildlife comes into the garden to feed on the garden plants. Most, however, come to the garden primarily to feed on the garden "pests". Companion plants are often considered of value to the garden as a result of their ability to repel garden pests. For the most part, however, companion plants are of particular value because of their ability to attract and to maintain populations of pest predators. This sub-section is about the companion plants that seem to work by attracting the "beneficials" who, in turn, feed on "pests" as well as the companion plants that seem to work by repelling pests directly. A major problem is that a lot of the information about the use of companion plants has never been documented. An effort will be made to spell out if the particular use of a companion plant does or does not have supporting data. J.01.01: Q.: What are "trap crops". A.: "Trap crops" are substitute target plantings that are used mostly in agriculture. Shasta daisies, for example, can be used as a "trap crop" for strawberries because lygus prefer to feed on the daisies. "Trap crops" are planted around the outside perimeter of the field, orchard, or garden in the hope of protecting the inner crop. There is very little data supporting this practice. J.02.*: Attracting Bees and other Pollinators J.02.00: Introduction to Attracting Bees and other Pollinators Pollen is the male germ cell and pollination is when these male germs cells are moved to the female part of the flower. Self pollination is when pollen is transferred from the male to the female parts on the same flower. Cross-pollination is when pollen from one plant is transferred to another plant of the same species. The resulting offspring from cross-pollinated plants are more vigorous and seemingly more disease resistant. Plants produce nectar to attract insects to them so that the flowers can be pollinated. There are many insects that are attracted to this nectar and in the process pollinate the flowers. Bees, as a group however, are unique in that the nectar is their base source for carbohydrates and the pollen is their base source of fat and protein. Bees are the primary pollinators of many plants. The honey bee population is down at the present time. It is impacting on gardens and agriculture. The best way to attract these various pollinators to the garden is through the use of nectar producing plants. This sub-section is about the use of the major and minor "honey plants" to attract bees and other pollinators to the garden; the use of water and propolis as attractants; and a guide to the major references and resources on bee keeping. J.02.01: Q: What are the best plants to attract bees to my garden? A: It varies with the region. "The Complete Guide to Bee-keeping" by Roger A. Morse lists the "major honey plants" as: Alfalfa, Aster, Basswood, Buckwheat, Clover, Goldenrod, Locust, Orange, Raspberry, Tulip Tree, and Wild Thyme. Morse adds that there are two hundred or more "minor honey plants" as well. Best bet is to talk with your local agricultural agent to learn which plants do the best job of attracting pollinators in your area. J.02.02: Q: I live in a crowded suburb with neighbors on both side. Is it feasible for me to keep bees? A: Screens seem to work in guiding bees over areas or structures close to the hive and there is some beekeeping that goes on in suburban and urban areas without any real problem. It would be a good idea, however, to talk it through with your neighbors and to check with the local authorities. There are some communities with ordinances forbidding beekeeping. J.02.03: Q: How about having a FAQ on bee keeping? A: There is a lot of interest and a lot of material on bee keeping. It warrents more than a section in this FAQ. There is already a good amount of material on bee keeping on the Internet. See "The Internet Apiculture and Beekeeping Archive at ; "The International Bee Research Association's web page at ; and "The Beekeeping Home Page at . There is also the bee keeping news-letter, . J.03.*: The Use of Trees, Shrubs, Hedges, and Brush to Attract Wildlife J.03.00: Introduction to the Use of Trees, Shrubs, Hedges, and Brush to Attract Wildlife Many of the books on gardening for wildlife give lists of the various plants favored by the various creatures. The problem, in many cases, is that those plants or those creatures listed simply live someplace else. Sometimes the better option is to look closer to home and to identify those local plants that seem favored by the wildlife in your area. Plant material that is native or particularly well adapted to your area is often the most attractive. This sub-section is about the various ways to identify the most appropriate herbaceous plant material to attract and to maintain wildlife in the garden and the ways this plant material can be used. J.04.*: The Use of Water Features and other Garden Structures to Attract and/or to Maintain Wildlife J.04.00: Introduction to the use of water features and other garden structures to attract and/or to main wildlife Every garden ought to have a water feature even if it is no more elaborate than a terra cotta pot, an aquatic plant, and maybe a goldfish or two or even a simple saucer as a bird bath. Every living creature needs water and water attracts wildlife. It is particularly attractive if it gives the sight or sound of moving water. Most aquatic plants do better in still water. Most birds seem to like the water shallow. Some wildlife prefer to drink moisture that has condensed on foliage and so on. This sub-section is about the design, construction, and maintenance of water features in the garden and the ways water can be used to attract to help nourish wildlife. J.05.*: Garden Pesticide Usage and Wildlife J.05.00: Introduction to Garden Pesticide Usage and Wildlife There is an adage that a "weed" is a plant that is growing in the WRONG place, but a "weed" is also looked at as a noxious plant that grows so vigorously that it threatens to take over. Indeed, vigorously growing plants are said to be growing "like a weed". For the most part, a garden "pest" is a living organism that is also growing in the WRONG place and also looked at as being noxious with the capacity to take over. "Common-Sense Pest Control" by Olkowski, Daar, and Olkowski says, "Much of our garden wildlife falls into the pest category, but only because of limited human tolerance for minor plant damage and the visible presence of certain species. We [simply] prefer to think of these organisms as potential pests. Although some of them have the capacity of eating plants, their presence does not necessarily mean they are causing damage worth worrying about. Other organisms may not be causing any damage at all; it's simply that the gardener finds them visually unappealing". There are, however, differences in the ways most "pests" and most wildlife respond to garden pesticides. Wildlife is usually more sensitive to the toxicity of pesticides than most garden pests and wildlife falls victim more easily, also wildlife usually has a more difficult time in recovering from toxic exposure, further wildlife usually has a greater problem in developing effective tolerance. Part of the reason for this is bio-magnification, see H.08.01. At the more obvious level, those creatures we tend to identify as "pests" are identified by much of wildlife as morsel treats. A garden with few morsel treats as a result of pesticide usage isn't that inviting. This sub-section is about the various ways toxic pesticides impact on wildlife and their invitation into the garden. J.06.*: Gardening Neighboring Rustic Lands J.06.00: Introduction to Gardening Neighboring Rustic Lands Many people believe that nature is the best gardener and that the best thing we can do for the woods or wetlands is to leave them alone. They say, "The less man impacts on nature the better!" The gardener knows by looking at his garden that this is not necessarily so. Gardens usually don't start out as places brimming over with vitality, they get that way because of the joint efforts of gardeners working with nature. A classic example is the increasing awareness of the importance of hedgerows once many were removed to make more room for broader highways. Hedgerows started out as planting put there by the hand of man. Any gardening that improves the environment of rustic lands neighboring the garden helps the environment of the garden as well. The ecosystems of the two are very similar. Henry David Thoreau once said, "The sun looks on our cultivated fields and on the prairies and forests without distinction. . . Do [these beans] not grow for woodchucks too?" Nature doesn't think much of property lines. This sub-section is about the various ways to garden the neighboring rustic lands. Michael Pollan calls it, "cultivating wildness." J.07.*: Gardening for Wildlife, Misc. J.07.00: Introduction to Gardening for Wildlife, Misc. This is a temporary, catch-all sub-section for all those issues that don't seem to fit in the other Gardening for Wildlife sub-sections. Appendix A Organic Certification Standards The 1996 International Certification Standard is set by the Organic Crop Improvement Association. It is generally regarded as the accepted standard by most governmental agencies throughout the world. The U.S. Congress passed the Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 which mandated that the USDA oversee which materials could or could not be used on crops for the U.S. market. The National Organic Standards Board of the USDA is in the process of drafting a National List. The materials lists are similar but not the same and both are included in this appendix. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- The 1996 OCIA International Certification Standard; Section Eight; Materials List DEFINITION OF CATEGORIES: ALLOWED (A) materials are materials that may be used on land and crops in the OCIA Certification program RESTRICTED (R) materials are allowed by OCIA with certain restrictions, and only if no alternatives are feasible. The use of these materials is discouraged. In many cases, the permitted use of these materials is dependent on the specific source, and demonstration that the material is free from contamination. In some cases, there is simply not enough information about a material. PROHIBITED (P) materials may not be used on land in the certification program, or in the production of any crops grown on land in the certification program. At least three years must pass after the use of any prohibited substances before land which has received that substance may be certified MATERIAL: STATUS: SPECIFICATIONS: Synthetic Pesticides (P) All synthetic derived pesticides not specifically mentioned by name Adhesive Traps (A) Alfalfa Pellets (A) Used as soil amendment; Typical analysys: 3-1-2; unknown growth factors Alkali Carbonates (R) For disinfecting livestock facilities only Ammonia Products (P) May not be used directly or in bait Anti-Coagulant stations on certified land. May be used Rodenticides (R) with restrictions in processing facilities, see processing standards Antibiotics (P) There is a strong concern about uptake of Arsenic arsenic compounds from pressure treated Pressure-Treated (R) lumber used for trelllising vines and Lumber other field applications. All possible alternatives should be explored before use Wetable powder and bait form preferred. Bacillus Thuringenses (A) Liquid forms containing xxylene or petroleum distillates are prohibited. Bactericides, Synthetic (P) Typical analysis: 0-0-0; good slow Balsalt (A) release trace elements, but only 3% potash Includes insects, nematodes, decollate snails, microbial fungiciides, strepto- Beneficial Organisms (A) mycin bacteria for fire blight control (not for use on livestock). No genetically engineered organisms. Biodynamic Preparations (A) Biological Controls (A) Such as microbes or insects Biotite Mica (A) Typical analysis:0-0-1; very slow release Bird Baits (P) Bird Traps and Netting (A) In livestock production for disinfecting Bleach, (sodium facilities only. OK for disinfecting farm hypchlorite) (R) implements. Preferred to other synthetic disinfectants. See Chlorine for further restrictions. In the end it comes down to specific products and the trustworthiness of the manufacturer. The operative procedure is most definitely BUYER BEWARE. If the Blended Fertilizer manufacturer will give you a detailed Products (A) list of ingredients, and the fertilizer actually corresponds to that list of ingredients (it often doesn't), you can make a decision on the basis of the materials listed above. If you don't know what it is don't buy it! Blood Meal (A) Bone Meal (A) Mined minerals preferred. Use with Bordeaux Mixes (A) caution. Build-up of copper in soil may prohibit future use. Not for use on edible product parts. Can Boric Acid (H3BO3) (A) not be in direct contact with soil or plant tissue. Boron Products (A) May only be used if soil tests show deficiency Calcium Nitrate (P) Carbamates (P) Permitted for both post-harvest and soil Carbon Dioxide (A) use. May be used as a fumigant in stored commodities Carbonates (A) OK for trace element source Carrot Oil (P) Caustic Potash See Potassium Hydroxide Acceptable if chelating agent is from a natural source. Ligno-sulphates are Chelates (R) acceptable. Natural chelating agents include citric acid, malic acid, tartaric acid, and other di- and tri- acids. EDTA is a synthetic and is not permitted. Chilean Nitrate (P) See sodium nitrate Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (P) Highly toxic and volatile. Use with Chlorine (Cl) (R) caution. Includes sodium hypochlorite (see Bleach) Citrus Oil (A) May contain residues of pesticides banned Cocoa Bean Hills (R) in U.S. Use only if documented to be residue-free Colloidal Phos (A) Typical analysis: 0-2-0; limited value unless mixed with manure; 18% total P2P5 Composting refers to the process in which organic materials are digested aerobically or anaerobically by microbial action. In order to effectively stabilize the nutrients in compost, neuralize pesticide residues and kill weed seeds and pathogens, compost piles must reach a temperature of 120 to 140 degrees F. for a period of about 6 weeks. Composts Composts (A) should remain moist but not waterlogged for the whole decompostion period for best results. Written documentation of source of off- farm materials is required. No OCIA prohibited materials may be used in composting, including synthetically fortified compost starters. Growers should obtain a list of the main ingredients in any purchased composts. See also microbial compost inoculants Copper (R) May be fed or injected to livestock to treat documented mineral deficiencies Considered a Bordeaux. More toxic than Copper Hydroxide (R) copper sulfate, but application rate is less Acceptable as a Bordeaux. Use with Copper Sulfate (farm) (A) caution and restraint. May cause a copper accumulation in the soil Copper Sulfate (Livestock) (R) Footbath only for livestock This material is potentially more contaminated than cottonseed meal because Cotton Gin Trash (R) many residues are in the hull of the cottonseed. Composting is REQUIRED before use (See Cottonseed Meal) May contain substantial pesticide residuues. Use only if documented to be Cottonseed Meal (R) residue-free or it MUST be composted prior to use. (See Compost for guidelines). Proper composting has been shown to break down toxcic residues. Deer and Rabbit Acceptable if derived from a natural repellents (R) repellent source, providing synthetic additives are not used. Non-heated forms only are allowed. Use a Diatomaceous Earth (R) dust mask when applying to prevent lung irritation. Make sure no synthetic pesticides or synergists are added Dimethyl Sulfoxide (P) Dolomite (A) May cause a build-up of magnesium. Use With caution Dormant Oils (A) Approved for use as a dormant spray on Woody plants only (See Suffocating Oils) Acceptable if derived microbiologically Enzymes (A) from natural materials and not fortified with synthetic plant nutrients May be used only in cases where use is Ethylene (CH2CH2) (R) deemed essential to get the crop to market and requires internal review pre-approval Growers wishing to use them must obtain Ethylene Oxide (R) consent of the internal review committee first Forms which are "fortified" with Fish Emulsion (A) synthetic plant nutrients are prohibited. Stabilizied products are acceptable Fish Meal (A) Formaldehyde (H-CHO) (P) Fortified Humic (P) Must not contain any synthetic Fruit Waxes (R) substances. May not be used on edible plant parts. Acceptable materials include carnuba or wood-extracted wax Fumigants (P) Cannot be used for soil treatment, post- harvest handling, or in packing materials Fungicides, synthetic (P) Garlic (A) Acceptable if made from a fermentation Gibberelic Acid (R) process and not fortifies with synthetics substances Grape and other Aerobic composting required before use if Pomaces (A) from non-organic source Growth Enhancers (A) Must not contain synthetic substances Includes all formulations of the synthetic propagation hormone IBA Growth Regulators (P) (Indol-3-butyric acid), as well as the growth regulator NAA (1-Naphthalene acetic acid) IAA (Indol acetic acid)is a natural growth regulator Gyano, Bat or Bird (A) See Manures, Animal Can contain large quantities of herb- icide and pesticide residues. Much of it the by-product of sheet rock manufacture Gypsum By Product (P) and may contain fungicides, fire retardants and other harmful chemicals. Mined gypsum is a reasonably priced alternatiive and is strongly recommended Herbal Preparations (A) May not be extracted with synthetic chemicals Herbicides, Synthetic (P) Horn and Hoof Meal (A) Humates are usually natural deposits which are mined and may have high trace Humates (A) mineral contents. Acceptable if derived from leonardite, lignite, or coal, not acceptable if fortified with synthetic ingredients These are extracts of humates which may Humic Acid be made with either natural or unnatural Derivatives (A) processes. Only acceptable if derived from natural sources and not fortified Hydrated Lime (R) Foliar application as a fungicide only Hydrogen Peroxide (A) Insect Extracts (A) ("bug juice", etc.) Iodine (R) External disinfectant and foot bath for livestock Ionizng Radiation (P) i.e., irradiation or pico-waved Not acceptable if containing formaldehyde Kelp Extracts (A) or fortified with synthetic plant nutrients Kelp Meal (A) Allowed in livestock production also Kiln Dust (A) Toxic if used in excess, apply with caution (residue from hide processing). Likely to Leather Dust (R) be contaminated with chromium and other metal solvents which are used in leather processing. Testing may be required. Lime (Calcium Oxide; For disinfecting livestock facilities or CaO) (A) cleaning processing plants where adequate rinsing is provided (includes Calcium Polysulphide). Foliar Lime Sulfur (R) application as a fungicide allowed. May be used as an insecticide only if there are no feasable alternatives Oyster shell flour, dolomite, and mined Limestone (A) CaC)3 are accpetable. Sugarbeet lime is a restricted material. (See Sugar Beet Lime) Lye (See Potassium Hydroxide and Sodium Hydroxide) Must be aerobically composted, preferably by turning and keeping moist and warm Manures, Animal (A) until well broken down (see definition of composting under Compost). Raw manures are considered as restricted materials (see Manures, Raw) Can be harmful to soil life and cause unhealthy levels of nitrates in produce and salt build-up in soils. Can also contain pesticide residues depending on what the animal has been eating. Composting strongly recommended since it can stabilize the nitrogen content, kill weed seeds, and help neutralize pesticide residues. (See Manures, Animal). Fresh and "sheet composted" manures are allowed only in MODERATE amounts and as a supplement to other soil-building practices. Please be especially careful when using on crops which can accucmulate nitrates such as leafy greens, radishes and beets. Uncomposted manure that has been turned and free of internal frost for at least six months prior to Manures, Raw (R) application is permitted. Fresh, aerated, anaerobic, or "sheet composted" manaures are permitted on perennials or crops not for human consumption, or when a crop for human consumsption is not to be harvested for at least four monthhs following the application. At application the soil must be sufficiently warm (about 10 C) and moist to ensure active microbial digestion. On radishes, leafy green, the beet family, and other known nitrate accumulators fresh, aerated, anaerobic, or "sheet composted" manures may not be applied less than four months before planting and the soil must be sufficiently warm and moist to ensure active microbial digestion. All manure sources and management techniques must be clearly documented as a part of the certification process. Methyl Bromide (P) Methyl Sulfoxide (P) Microbial Plant Including rhizobia bacteria, mycorrhizae, Inoculants (A) azolla, azotobacter, etc. Naturally occuring microbes only. No synthetic preservatives or fortifications Microbial Soil are allowed. The liquid preparations Compost & Seed (A) often contain sodium sulfites which are Inoculants NOT allowed. Powdered forms are recommended because of their natural origins and because they have been shown to generally be more effective. Materials derived from natural sources are recommended. Synthetic sources of Micronutrient Sprays (R) micro nutrients are allowed only to correct deficiencies determined by soil or plant tissue tests. A mined mineral must not have undergone any change in the molecular structure through heating or combining with other susbstances. Some of the minerals which are mined can also be made synthetically or are by-products of industry; Mined Minerals (A) investigate the source of any new material. Acceptable if the material is not processed or fortified with synthetic chemicals. Example of natural mined minerals include phosphate rock, soil-min, greensand, zeolie, granite dust, nutri-min and limestone. Moth Balls/Moth Crystals (P) (see Napthalene) It is recommended that organic materials to be used for mulch be documented to be Mulches (A) pesticide free. (See restrictions under Plastic Mulch). Biodegradable plastic mulch is still synthetic so that the same restrictions apply as for plastic. Muriate of Potash (P) Prohibited because of high chloride content May contain substantial pesticide Mushroom Compost (R) residues. Use only if documented to be Residue-free or it MUST be recomposted before use. (See Compost for Guidelines) Naphthalene (P) Nematociides (P) Synthetically compounded Nicotine (P) Prohibited because of extreme toxicity Nitrate, Ammonium (P) Typical Analysis; 34-0-0 Nitrate, Potassium (P) Typical Analysis; 13-0-44 Nitrogen (A) For use in controlled atmosphere storage and package flushing. Organophosphate (P) Must not contain artifical wetting agents. Wear a dust mask when working Peat Moss (A) with peat moss as the dust from it has been shown to sometimes cause lung infections. Perlite (A) Pesticides, Synthetic (P) These are used as additivies and some- times as inert ingredients in other products. Can be carcinogenic when Petroleum Distillates (P) formulated with aromatic petroleum products such as phenols and benzene. There is good reason to believe that these materials are very toxic to humans. Petroleum Oil Dormant spray adjuvants and summer oils (spreader-stickers, (R) acceptable for use on woody perennials carriers) only. Naturally derived pheromones are recom- Pheromones (A) mended. May not be combined with synthetic pesticides. Phosphate Rock (A) Must not be fortifieid with synthetic chemicals Phosphoric Acid (P) Although this material is derived from a Piperonyl Butoxide plant source originally, it has gone (see Synergist, (P) through a sub- stantial molecular change synthetic) in its extraction and processing. Check the labels on botanicals to make sure this is not in the product. Parts of plants which have specific uses Plant Extracts (A) in pest control or fertility such as marigolds, sesame chaff and equistem (horsetails) as permitted. Plant Protectants (synthetic) (P) Plastic Feed Pellets (P) For livestock Must not be incorporated into soil or Plastics for Mulch, left in field to decompose. Biodegradable Row Covers and (R) plastic mulches are still made Solarization synhetically and so the same restrictions apply of not being incorporated into the soil. For disinfecting livestock facilities or Potassium Hydroxide (R) cleaning processing plants where adequate rinsing is provided. Potassium For disinfecting livestock facilites Permanganate (R) only. Potassium Sulfate (R) Mined materials only Pyrethroids (P) Synthetic form of pyrethrins Only naturally occuring forms are allowed. Pyrethroids are prohibited. Pyrethrums (R) Synthetic additives are not allowed. Must not include piperonyl butoxide. (See Piperonyl Butoxide) Quassia (A) A botanical extract Rodent Traps (A) Mechanical traps are acceptable but not with synthetic baits. Rotenone (R) Very toxic, use with caution. Toxic to fish and others. Ryania (R) Very toxic, use with caution Sabadilla (R) Very toxic, use with caution Crab and shrimp shells are acceptable for Sea Animal Wastes (A) nematode control if they do not contain synthetic ingredients. Seaweed, ground (A) Typical Analysis: 1-0-2 or 0-0-3 Selenium (R) May be fed or injected to livestock to treat for documented deficienciies. Sewage Sludge (P) Likely to be contaminated with heavy metals. Insecticidal and herbicidal soaps consisting of fatty acids derived from Soaps (A) animal or vegetable oils okay. May also be used as adjuvants (spreader-stickers, surfactants and carriers). May be used as a disinfectant for livestock also. Sodium Borate (A) For soil application or dilution and spraying. This material is now being mined in Greenland and the natural form is allowed Sodium Fluoaluminate (R) with restrictions. May seriously injure some fruit. Residues can be toxic and persistent, but are easily washed off. Wash off all residues before marketing. Sodium Hydroxide (P) Sodium Molybdate (R) Acceptable as a last resort. Use other sources of molybdenum if at all possible. Not allowed because of high sodium Sodium Nitrate (P) content, and lack of positive effects on soil building. Soil Fumigants (P) Soybean Meal (A) Used as a soil amendment. Typical Analysis: 6-1-2 Spray Adjuvants, Spreader-stickers, surfactants, carriers Synthetic (P) and wetting agents Sticky Traps (see Adhesive Traps (A) Botanical extract of Nox vomica. Allowed for rodent control only. Must not be left Strychnine (R) on ground surface. USE EXTREME CAUTION. Acceptable for use only if grower demonstrates continued research into alternative to strychnine. This includes dormant and summer oils on woody plants only for pest control purposes. Vegetable and animal derived oils are preferred. Petroleum based Suffocating Oils (A) suffocating oils are also allowed. They are highly refined and made primarily of alkanes which have been shown to be relatively non-toxic to humans. (See Petroleum Distillates) May contain substantial herbicide Sugar Beet Lime (R) residues and weed seed. Use only if documented to be residue-free. Sulfate of Potash Sulfate of potash magnesia (derived from Magnesia (A) the mineral langebite) is acceptable. Also known as K Mag. May be used only to correct for Sulfate of Zinc (R) defeciencies as determined by soil or plant tissue testing. May be used as trace minerals. Acceptable for foliar use as an insect- icide, fungicide or fertilizer. Direct Sulfur (R) application to soil is discouraged. Must be from a mined source. Prohibited for post-harvest treatment. Sulfur Dioxide (P) This prohibition appliies to any post- harvest use. For cautious use on woody plants only. No Summer Oils (A) carrot or weed oils. (See Suffocating Oils) Transpiration Blockers, Synthetic (P) Transplants (P) Not grown organically (annuals) Physical traps are permitted but they must not contain synthetic bait because Traps (A) the target pest could introduce the toxic chemical into the agro-ecosystem through their body. May contain fungicides, pesticides or heavy metals. Only allowed if no other option is available for the type of seed Treated Seeds (R) needed. This applies for potatos for seed. Sweet potato slips are considered to be transplants and as such must be organically grown. Plant or milk-based paints are recom- mended but interior latex paints may be Tree Seals (A) used. Other petroleum materials may be used if there is no alternative. Must not be combined with fungicides or other synthetic chemicals. Triple Phosphate (P) Urea (P) Includes seed starter Spreader-stickers, surfactantss and spray adjuvants carriers. Plant oil based Vegetable Oil (A) adjuvants must be comprised of at least 90% plant oil and may not contain synthetic pesticides. Vermiculite (A) Must be approved by OCIA Internal Review Committee on a product specific basis. Virus Sprays (A) Codling moth Branulosis virus is acceptable. No genetically engineered viruses are allowed. Vitamin Baits, synthetic (R) Used as a rodenticide Vitamins, synthetic (R) Allowed for use as a food supplement in livestock Weed Oils (P) Wetting Agents, Includes saponins microbial wetting natural (A) Agents Whey, Dairy (A) Used as soil amendment Woodash (A) Typical Analysiis: 0-2-6; Be careful of sources. Worm Castings (A) --------------------------------------------------------------------------- The Organic Food Production Act of 1990; Recommendations for The National List by the National Organic Standards Board as of November, 1995 Crops Materials See: http://www.cfarm.com/nosb/new/materials.htm http://www.organic.org/guide/materials.html I. The following materials have been determined to be synthetic and allowed for use in organic crop production: * Alcohol (Ethanol)....Permitted for use as a disinfectant. * Alcohol (Isopropanol)....Permitted for use as a disinfectant. * Ammonium Carbonate....For use as bait in insect traps only. Can not be in direct contact with crop or soil. * Antibiotics (Streptomycin sulfate)....Permitted for use as a fireblight control in apples and pears only. To be reviewed again in two years. * Antibiotics (Terramycin) - (Oxytetracycline calcium complex).... To be reviewed again in two years. * Aquatic Plants Extracts (Other than hydrolyzed)....Extraction process is limited to the use of potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide. The amount of the solvent used is not to exceed the amount necessary for extraction. * Chlorine Bleach (Calcium hypochlorite, sodium hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide)....Acceptable for cleaning irrigation systems. Allowed for disinfecting and sanitizing food contact surfaces. Residual chlorine levels for washwater in direct contact with crops or food, and in flush water from cleaning irrigation systems that is applied to crops or fields cannot exceed the maximum residual disinfectant limit under the Safe Drinking Water Act (currently 4 mg/L expressed as Cl2). This substance is to be reviewed again in two years. * Coppers, Fixed....May be used for disease control. May not be used as an herbicide. Shall be used in a manner that prevents excessive copper accumulation in the soil. * Hydrogen Peroxide * Lignin Sulfonate....Allowed for use with micro nutrients and macro nutrients and as a chelating agent. Also allowed for use as a dust suppressant and a floatation agent. * Magnesium Sulfate....Allowed for use as a soil amendment with a documented Magnesium deficiency. * Newspaper Mulch....Glossy paper and colored ink paper is prohibited. * Petroleum Distillates....Restricted to petroleum derivatives with a 50% boiling point at 10 mm mercury pressure between 415 degrees Fm and 440 degrees Fo, plus or minus 8 degrees Fo. Aromatic petroleum solvents including, but not limited to, benzene, napthalene, toluene, and xylene are prohibited. Allowed for use in organic production as suffocating or stylet oils on foliage and as inert Ingredients. May be applied to dormant perennials. Direct application to harvested crop is prohibited. Petroleum distillates may not be used as either weed or carrot oils in organic production. Land covered with petroleum derived pavement and road oils cannot be cetrified for 3 years following application. * Plastic Mulch and Covers[Petroleum based; other than poly-vinyl chloride (PVC)]....PVC is prohibited. Petroleum based plastics other than PVC are acceptable. Restricted by OFPA as having to be removed at the end of each growing or harvestiong season; also, shall not be incorporated into the soil or left in the field to decompose. * Sticky Traps and Barriers * Vitamins D1, C, and E Vitamin D3....Permitted as rodenticide. II. The following materials have been determined to be synthetic and unacceptable for use in organic crop production: * Antibiotics (Avermectin) * Arsenate Treated Lumber...Effective on the publication date of the final rule, the use of arsenate (and other prohibited materials) treated lumber is prohibited for new construction and replacement purposes. Certification applicants shall provide records to the certifying agent that arsenate (and other prohibited materials) treated lumber was not installed within 36 months immediately preceding the initial harvest date of any organic agricultural products. In no case shall arsenate (and other prohibited materials) treated lumber be allowed in installations in contact with the soil and used to grow vegetables (soil bed). * Gypsum By-Product (From flue trappings and fertilizer manufacture) * Gypsum By-Product (From drywall manufacture) * Killed Microbial Pesticide (Pseudomonas florescens with Bt gene) * Leather By-Product * Potassium Nitrate (Niter) III. The following materials have been determined to be non-synthetic and recommended for placement on the Prohibited Naturals List: * None IV. The following materials have been determined to be non-synthetic and not within the scope of the National List: * Gypsum By-Product (Mined source) * Potassium Chloride (Muriate of Potash)....Only the mined source is considered non-synthetic. Any use shall be in a manner that prevents excessive chloride accumulation in soils. Soil tsting may be required in both treated and untreated adjacent soils to verify absence of chloride build-up. * Sodium Bicarbonate V. The following materials have been tabled by the NOSB: * Potassium Permanganate * Sulfur Dioxide VI. The following petitioned materials are deemed by the NOSB to be synthetic, imcompatible with organic farming systems, prohibited by the Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 and should not be reviewed by the Technical Advisory Panel: * Benomyl * Captan * Glyphosphate * Nethoxychlor * Thiram Appendix B Recommended Reading (A.) Environmentally Friendly Gardening * Carson, R.. 1962. "Silent Spring". Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett. . . . This book marked a major turning point in public awareness of the side effects of pesticides. Historic classic, general reading * Johnson, Hugh. 1979. "The Principles of Gardening". New York: A Fireside Book, Simon & Schuster, Inc. . . An overview of gardening and the art of gardening, general reading * Neal, Bill. 1992. "Gardener's Latin". New York: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, a division of Workman Publishing Co. . . . a handy guide and lexicon * Pollan, Michael. 1991. "Second Nature". New York: The Atlantic Monthly Press . . . reflections on gardening with nature, delightfully written, general reading * Thoreau, Henry David. 1854. "Walden; or Life in the Woods". Boston: Ticknor and Fields . . . classic essays on living in communion with nature - a must! (B.) Soils and Soil Science * Brady, Nyle C.1990. "The Nature and Properties of Soils". New York: Macmillan Publishers . . . a good, college level text book and reference * Handreck, K.A. and Black, N.D. 1984. "Growing Media for Ornamental Plants and Turf". Kensington, Australia: New South Wales University Press . . . a good, college level text book on soils (C.) Compost and Composting * Campbell, Stu. 1975. "Let it Rot! The Gardener's Guide to Composting". Pownal, Ve.: A Garden Way Publishing Book . . . A general guide on composting, general reading (D.) Plant Nutrition * Soil Improvement Committee, California Fertilizer Association. 1995. "Western Fertilizer Handbook". Danville, Il.: Interstate Publishers, Inc. . . . a handy reference with many charts and tables on nutrients and soils, general reading (E.) Cultural Practices * Coleman, Eliot. 1995. "The New Organic Grower". Halifax, N.S.: Nimbus Publishers . . . A general guide on the cultural practices of organic gardening * Rodale, J.I., ed. 1978. "How to Grow Vegetables and Fruits by the Organic Method". Emmaus, Pa.: Rodale Press . . . This book is one of the classics of organic gardening, general reading (F.) Botany for Home Gardeners * Capon, Brian 1990. "Botany for Gardeners - An Introduction and Guide". Portland, Oregon: Timber Press . . . a basic over- view of botany for the home gardener, well illustrated, general reading * Stern, Kingsley R. 1997. "Introductory Plant Biology". Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Publishers . . . a classic college text and reference, well illustrated, advanced reading (G.) Plant and Soil Disease * Agros, G.N. 1988. "Plant Pathology". San Diego: Academic Press. . . One of the better plant pathology texts, college level * Horst, R. Kenneth. 1990. "Westcott's Plant Disease Handbook". New York: An Anvi Book - Van Horstrand Reinhold . . . A classic, excellent reference and guide * Pirone, Pascal P. 1978. "Disease and Pests of Ornamental Plants". New York: Wiley-Interscience Publication . . . A good reference and guide, easier read. * Olkowski, William, Sheila Daar and Helga Olkowski. 1991 "Common-Sense Pest Control". Newton, Conn.: A Fine Gardening Book. Taunton Press . . . a classic and standard of Integrated Pest Management, college level; cited as a reference for sections on pest control, disease control, and weed control * Powell, Charles C. And Lindquist, Richard K. 1992. "Ball Pest and Disease Manuel". Geneva, Ill.: Ball Publishing . . . A good reference for identifying plant disease with accounts of the pathogen's life cycles (H.) Plant and Soil Pests * Carr, Anna. 1983. "Rodale's Color Handbook of Garden Insects". Emmaus, Pa.: Rodale Press . . . A classic in organic gardening as well as a handy reference and guide, general reading * Flint, Mary Louise. 1990. "Pests of the Garden and Small Farm: A Grower's Guide to Using Less Pesticide". Oakland, Ca.: ANR Publications . . . A standard for Integrated Pest Management with quality illustrations of various pests found in U.S. and Canada, general reading * Marer, P.J. 1988. "The Safe and Effective Use of Pesticides". Davis: University of California Statewide Integrated Pest Management Project, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources (Publication 3324) . . . William Olkowski calls it, "This is the best basic discussion of pesticide composition, behavior, toxicity and appropriate methods of use currently (1991) in print", college level * Olkowski, Daar and Olkowski; see particulars "Common-Sense Pest Control"; Section G * Van den Bosch, R., P.S. Messenger and A.P. Gutierrez. 1982. "An Introduction to Biological Control". New York: Plenum Press . . . textbook introduction to beneficial insects, general reading * Yepson, Roger B. 1984. "The Encyclopedia of Natural Insect and Disease Control". Emmaus, Pa: Rodale Press . . . a general guide and reference, general reading (I.) Weed Control * Aldrich, R.J. 1984. "Weed-crop ecology: principles in weed management". Belmont, Calif.: Breton Publishers . . . An excellent text on agricultural weed management from an ecological perspective * California Weed Conference. 1989. "Principles of Weed Control In California". Fresno, California: Thomson Publications . . . Good reference on alternatives to toxic herbicides * Fischer, B.B., A.H. Lange, J. McCaskill, B. Crampton and B. Tabraham. 1978. "Grower's Weed Identificqation Handbook". Oakland: ANR Publications, University of California. . . Said to be the best weed identification tool currently available'. * Harrington, H.D., and L.W. Durrell. 1957. "How to identify plants". Chicago:Swallow Press . . . a class text on plant identification considered particularly helpfull regarding the identification of weeds. * Hesketh, K.A. and C.L. Elmore. 1982. "Vegetable plantings with- out weeds". Berkeley: University of California, Diivision of Agricultural Sciences (Leaflet #21153) . . . a concise booklet spelling out procedures for reducing weeds through soil solarization * Isley, D. 1960.. "Weed Identification and Control". Ames: Iowa State University Press . . . generalized for weeds in the U.S. * Muenscher, W.C. 1980. "Weeds". Ithaca, N.Y.:Cornell University Press . . . Control information limited to mechanical methods but a classic text with a handy reference for weed identification * Olkowski, Daar, and Olkowski; see particulars "Common-Sense Pest Control"; Section G * Western Society of Weed Science. 1990. "Weeds of the West". Jackson, Wyoming: University of Wyoming Press . . . One of the better general references, well illustrated for weed identification. (J.) Gardening for Wildlife * Homes, Roger, Editor 1993. "Taylor's Guide to Natural Gardening". New York: Houghton Mifflan Co. . . . a reference and guide with a comprehensive listing of wild flowers and plants that attract wildlife, general reading * McElroy, Thomas P. 1960. "The New Handbook of Attracting Birds". New York: Alfrd A. Knopf. . . A classic reference, general reading. * Morse, Roger A. 1972. "The Complete Guide to Beekeeping". New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. . . A little dated but still a classic and one of the best general references on bees and bee keeping, easy read * Sedenks, Jerry 1991. "The Butterfly Garden". New York: Villard Books. . . A good reference and guide, general Reading * Sunset Book Editors 1974. "Attracting Birds to your Garden". Menlo Park, Ca., a general reference, general reading (K.) Growing Edible Crops * Creasy, Rosalind 1982. "The Complete Book of Edible Landscaping" San Francisco, Calif.: Sierra Club . . . an overview of foodscaping, well illustrated, a handy reference and guide, general reading * Kourik, R. 1986. "Designing and Maintaining your Edible Landscape Naturally". Santa Rosa, Calif.: Metamorphic Press . . . a guide to the practical aspects of garden layout and use of companion plants, general reading, college level (L.) Ecology * Begon, M.,Harper, J.L., and Townsend C.R. 1996. "Ecology". (3rd Edition) Oxford: Blackwell Science . . . a classic text on ecology, college level Appendix C: Related Newsgroups, Websites, Mailing Lists and Off-Line Addresses There are lots of newsgroups, websites, and mailing lists on the Internet that have relevance to the home gardener. New resources come on-line almost continuously while others fall by the way side. This appendix is a listing of the names and addresses of some of the more relevant newsgroups, websites and mailing lists for the home gardener following organic gardening and/or IPM. The appendix also lists a number of off-line addresses. An effort is made to keep this appendix current. We are open to suggestions as to additions or deletions. C.01.*: Newsgroups Not all usenet newsgroups are available at all sites. It depends on the groups the site administrators choose or have available. Talk to your site administrator about adding groups of your choice. See the search of usenet newsgroups at: http://sunSITE.unc.edu/usenet-I/search.html Those newsgroups that seem most relevant to home gardeners following organic gardening and/or IPM techniques: alt.sustainable.agricuture . . . un-moderated newsgroup on sustainable agriculture; light traffic; mostly farm and/or edible crop oriented but also has articles of interest to those growing ornamentals; broad range of materials and readership bionet.plants . . . . . un-moderated newsgroup on ornamental and edible plants; light traffic; can be on technical side, advanced material and advanced readership rec.gardens . . . . . . un-moderated newsgroup on general gardening; heavy traffic; broad range of material and readership rec.gardens.ecosystems. . . moderated newsgroup on organic gardening, IPM, and garden ecosystems; ornamental and edible crop gardening; a new news-group building increased traffic and readership; broad range of material leaning towards the technical side; broad readership rec.gardens.edible. . . un-moderated newsgroup on edible crop gardening; a new group building increased traffic and readership; broad range of material and readership rec.ponds . . . . . . . un-moderated newsgroup on building and maintaining water gardens and water features; moderate traffic; mostly on- topic and specialized material; broad to advanced readership sci.agriculture.fruit . un-moderated newsgroup on growing fruit; light traffic; broad and advanced material; advanced readership; a good reference on the care of fruit trees uk.rec.gardening . . . un-moderated newsgroup on general home gardening in the U.K.; moderate to heavy traffic; broad material and readership; similar to rec.gardens but based in U.K. C.02.*: Mailing Lists & News Letters See the search of listserv newsletters at: http://www.liszt.com/ Those mailing lists & newsletters that seem most relevant to home gardeners following organic gardening and/or IPM: C.02.01: General Gardening / General Organic Gardening: Aliens List Address: Aliens-l@ens.planet.gen.nz Subscription messgae: SUBSCRIBE your name Gardens and Gardening Listserv Address: LISTSERV@UKCC.UKY.EDU Subscription message: SUBSCRIBE GARDENS and your name Master Gardeners Discussion List Address: Alist@listproc.wsu.edu Subscription message: SUBSCRIBE mgardener and your name Organic Gardening Discussions List (U.S. based) Address: listserv@ukcc.uky.edu Subscription message: SUBSCRIBE ogl and your name Organic Gardening Discussions List (UK based) Address: organic-l@steamradio.com Subscription message: SUBSCRIBE your name Pacific Northwest Organic Gardening Discussions List Address: pnworganics-l@q7.com Subscription message: SUBSCRIBE your name C.02.02: Specialized Gardening Alpines Discussion List Address: listserv@nic.surfnet.nl Subscription message: SUBSCRIBE alpine-L@nic.surfnetc.NL yourname yourcity Aquatic Plants Discussion List Address: mailto:macjordomo@actwin.com Subscription address: SUBSCRIBE aquatic-plants your name Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Discussion List Address: listserve@vm.ege.edu.tr Subscription address: SUBSCRIBE herb your name Mediterranean Plants Discussion List Address: listproc@ucdavis.edu Subscription message: SUBSCRIBE medit-plants your name Native Plants Discussion List Address: pnw-natives@cornetto.chem.washington.edu Subscription message: SUBSCRIBE your_firstname your_lastname In the body of the message: macjordomo@cornetto.chem.washington.edu C.02.03: Composting Home Composting Discussion List Address: listproc@.wsu.edu Subscription address: SUBSCRIBE compost your name C.02.04: Environmental Environment Discussion List Address:environment-l@cornell.edu Subscription address: SUBSCRIBE your name C.04.*: Websites C.04.01: General Gardening / General Organic Gardening: Garden Web Home Page http://www.gardenweb.com/ InterGarden http://sunSITE.unc.edu/InterGarden Midnet Organic http://www.midnet.com/midnet/organic Ohio State University's WebGarden http://www.hcs.ohio-state.edu/hcs/hcs.html Rochester Gardening http://www.servtech.com/public/dreid/garden/index.html The Garden Spider Web http://www.gardenweb.com/spdrsweb/ The Virtual Garden http://www.pathfinder.com/@cjj8zjwqalayzbgst/vg C.04.02: Specialized Gardening: Composting at Home http://www..gvrd.bc.ca/waste/bro/swcomp1.html Land Restoration http://www.hort.agri.umn.edu/h5015/rrr.htm Manure Maters Newsletter http://iamrwww.unt/edu.ianr/agronomy/mmnws.ltr.htm Pacific Northwest Native Wildlife Gardening http://chemwww.chem.washington.edu/natives/ Rot Web Home Composting Information Site http://net.indra.com/~topsoil/compost-menu.html Worm Composting System http://www.state.mo.us/dnr/deq/swmp/worm1.htm C.04.03: Gardening Associations: American Association of Botanical gardens http://cissus.mobot.org/AABGA/welcome.html American Horticultural Society http://emall.com/ahs/ahs.html American Rose Society http://www.ars.org C.04.04: Gardening References: Cornell Center for the Environment http://www.cfe.cornell.edu/ Extoxnet http://ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet Genetic Engineering Information @ Envirolink http://www.envirolink.org/orgs/shag/genetix.html National Agricultural Pest Information System http://www.ceris.purdue.edu/napis Pesticide Action Network http://www.passa.org./panna/ C.04.05: Commercial Websites; Suppliers: Note: This list is not an endorsement nor does it imply an endorsement for any of these companies or their products. This list is offered only as a convenience. BioOrganics Supply Center (Mycorrhizal Inoculants & Organic Fertilizers) don@bio-organics.com Burpee Seed (Seeds & Plant Material) http://garden.burpee.com Cascadium Farn (Organic Gardening Materials) http://www.cfarm.com Gardens Alive (Organic Gardening Materials) 76357.2160@compuserve.com Gardener's Supply Co. (Tools) http://gardeners.com/gardeners Smith & Hawken (Tools & Gifts) http://www.smith-hawken.com C.04.06: Websites, Misc. C.05.*: Off-Line Addresses: Note: This list is not an endorsement nor does it imply an endorsement for any of these companies or their products. This list is offered only as a convenience. C.05.01: Associations & References: C.05.02: Nurseries: Bear Creek Nursery (Bare root fruit trees) P.O. Box 411 Morthport, Wa., 99157 1-509-732-4417 Bearcreek@plix.com Heirloom Old Garden Roses (Own root Roses) 24062 NE Riverside Drive St. Paul, Or., 97137 1-503-538-1576 Heronswood Nursery, Ltd. (Perennials) 7530 NE 288th Street Kingston, Wa., 98346-9502 1-360-297-4172 Jackson & Perkins (Roses) 1 Rose Lane Medford, Or., 97501 1-800-292-4769 Kurt Blueml (Ornamental Grasses) 2740 Greene Ln. Baldwin, Nd., 21013-9523 1-410-557-7229 Nichols Garden Nursery (Seeds & Bulbs) 1190 Old Salem Road Albany, Or., 97321-4580 1-541-928-9280 Northwooods Nursery (Bare root fruit trees) 27635 S. Ogleby Rd. Canby, Or., 97013 1-503-266-5432 102742.3327@compuserve.com Park Seed Co. (Seeds & Bulbs) Cokesbury Road Greenwood, S.C., 29647-0001 1-800-845-3369 Pickering Nurseries, Inc. (Roses) 670 Kingston Rd., Highway #2 Pickering, Ontario L1V 1A6 Canada 1-416-839-2111 Pinetree Garden Seeds P.O. Box 300 New Gloucester, Me., 04260 1-207-926-3400 Http:www.maine.com/seeds/ Raintree Nursery (Bare root fruit trees) 3991 Butts Rd. Morton, Wa., 98356 1-360-496-6400 RaintreeNursery@juno.com Shepherd's Garden Seeds (Seeds) 30 Irene St. Torrington, Ct., 06790 1-800-482-3638 Stark Bro's Nursery (Fruit Trees) P.O. Box 10 Hwy 54 W. Louisianna, Mo., 63353 1-800-325-4180 Thompson & Morgan Seed Co. (Seeds) P.O. Box 1308 Jackson, N.J., 08527-2225 1-800-274-7333 Totally Tomatoes (Seeds) P.O. Box 2237 Fort Myers, Fl., 33902 1-941-768-1119 Van Bourgondien Brothers (Bulbs) 245 Farmingdale Rd. P.O. Box 1000 Babylon, N.Y., 11702 1-800-622-9997 Van Ness Water Gardens (Water Plants & Supplies) 2460 N. Euclid Ave. Upland, Ca., 91784-1199 1-800-205-2425 Wayside Gardens (Roses & Perennials) Hodges, SC., 29695-0001 1-800-845-1124 White Flower Farm (Annuals & Perennials) P.O. Box 50 Litchfield, Ct., 06759-0050 1-800-503-9624 C.05.03: Tools & Garden Supplies: DripWorks (Watering Systems) 380 Maple Street Willits, Ca., 95490 1-800-522-3747 Gardener's Supply Co. (Tools) 128 Intervale Road Burlington, Vt., 05401 1-800-863-1700 Gardens Alive! (Organic Gardening Supplies) 5100 Schenley Pl. Dept. 5672 Lawrenceburg, In., 47025 1-812-537-8650 A.M. Leonard, Inc. (Tools) P.O. Box 816 Piqua, Oh., 45356-0816 1-800-543-8955 info@amleo.com IPM Labs (Beneficial Insects) P.O. Box 300 Locke, NY., 13092-0300 1-315-497-2063 Kinsman Co. (Tools) River Rd., FH Point Pleasant, Pa., 18950 1-800-733-4146 Mellinger's Inc. (Tools) 2310 W. South Range Rd. North Lima, Oh., 44452 1-800-321-7444 Peaceful Valley Farm Supply (Organic Gardening Supplies) P. O. Box #NG Grass valley, Ca., 95945 1-916-272-4769 Walt Nicke Co. (Tools) P.O. Box 433 Topsfielld, Ma., 0193 1-800-822-4114 C.05.04: Books, Publications & Publishers: Acres U.S.A. (Monthly Eco-Agriculture News Letter) P.O. Box 8800 Metairie, La., 70011-8800 Allen Lacy's Homeground (Quarterly News Letter) P.O. Box 271 Linwood, NJ., 08221 Rodale Press, Inc. 400 South 10th Street Emmaus, Pa., 18098 1-800-527-8200 C.05.05: Misc. Addresses: Appendix D Moderation Policy The moderation policies for rec.gardens.ecosystems have a number of goals. One goal is to eliminate or reduce cross postings. The only crossposted articles allowed are administrative postings like RFDs and CFVs. A second goal is to help the discussions stay focused on ecosystems and organic gardening. A third goal is to discourage inappropriate postings. The moderation system consists of a robo-moderator supported by human moderators. The planed moderation program is expected to meet these goals. The robomoderator is intended as the primary "moderator at work". It has the ability and is given the authority to perform three functions during periods in which it is the primary moderator: 1. To reject cross posted articles or articles containing binaries, (PGP signatures O.K). 2. To check whether the poster has engaged in off-topic postings (such as, but not restricted to, 'flames' or non-authorized commercial postings) and attempts to continue such postings even after an explicit request by the moderating team has been sent that such practice cease. In the event that both conditions are met, the article is referred to the human moderators for consideration. 3. To approve and post all other articles independent of the human moderators. Except for forged messages, the moderators will not cancel any messages. The human moderators may update the robomoderator so as to reduce the number of off-topic postings. It should be noted that as the robomoderator is usually the only moderator at work, some amount of off-topic (see below) posts should be expected. The responsibilities of the human moderators are to maintain the robomoderator and to handle those situations that require individual attention. When the human moderators see a need to shift moderation to their control, they will first post an advanced notice on rec.gardens.ecosystems stating the intent to shift to human moderation (assisted by the robomoderator) and state the reasons for doing so. The human moderators take over for an unspecified length of time and will be assisted by the robomoderator checking for cross-posts, binaries, and approved posters. The human moderators may elect to give auto-approval status to any number of posters during those periods of human moderation. All human moderators have the right to accept or reject articles for rec.gardens.ecosystems. The reasoning behind the temporary shifting to human moderation is to provide the human moderators with the means to deal with difficult situations, these include but are not restricted to flamewars and a high percentage of off-topic postings. Articles that are blatantly commercial and have nothing to do with home gardening or articles that contain foul or offensive language, e.g., flames, are considered inappropriate for rec.gardens.ecosystems. Articles that are aimed at demeaning individuals as a result of their age, nationality, race, religion, gender or sexual orientation are also considered inappropriate. In the event that such an article should appear, the human moderator would contact the author, attach a copy of the group charter as a reference, and request the author's cooperation. In the event that all efforts to gain cooperation fail, the human moderator may elect to have all future articles from that author auto-referred to human moderators for individual consideration. The author would be notified by the human moderator if the decision was to reject the article. Articles advocating the routine application of materials prohibited by the International Certification Standards, as specified in Appendix A of the group FAQ, are considered inappropriate as well. The same general procedures as described above would be followed with the exception that if such a posting would actually appear in rec.gardens.ecosystems, the human moderator would also post an article stating that the application of that material in that particular way violates the International Certification Standard. As technology and circumstance change, it will undoubtedly be necessary to update the moderation policy from time to time. In which case, the changes would be posted to rec.gardens.ecosystems. The group FAQ will also contain the most recent version of the moderation policy in Appendix D. Commercial Postings: Articles announcing or promoting commercial products, services, or publications by commercial sources may be posted provided that they are appropriate in an organic gardening program. The articles must be approved by the moderator prior to posting. Commercial postings without pre-post approval will be considered as inappropriate and treated as above. Replacement of moderators: Moderators may be replaced in a vote organized by an independent vote-counter using the automated UseVote software. The voting period lasts for a period of 20 to 30 days, stated in advance in the Call For Votes. The Call For Votes must appear in rec.gardens.ecosystems. Moderators are replaced when the replacement candidate obtains a 2/3 majority with a minimal difference of 100 votes. The results of the vote are published in rec.gardens.ecosystems. The original proponent for a moderator replacement is allowed one article in the group calling for support. The subject line for that Call For Support should read: "Moderator replacement, Call For Support". The formal replacement process requires the support of at least ten past-posters with the number verified by the moderator group. A formal discussion on the replacement may then begin. The subject line for the formal discussion should read: "Moderator replacement, Request For Discussion". Calls For Support and Requests For Discussion will only be accepted when at least six months have passed since the last request for discussion of moderator replacement. Resignation of moderators, expansion of office: Moderators in office may resign or choose to increase their number. In such case, they may appoint a new moderator without a formal group vote. Anyone who would like to volunteer to become a moderator should notify one of the moderators. The moderators may ask the group for their opinions regarding a candidate moderator. Those who would wish to reply should do so by sending their comments directly to the moderators by private e-mail rather than posting in the group. The acceptance of a new moderator is then posted in rec.gardens.ecosystems. Conflicts between moderators: The moderator team will be supervised by a Moderator Supervisor who is not engaged in actual moderation. If the moderators have a conflict that they can not resolve by themselves, the Moderator Supervisor decides the issue. The proposed moderators propose the first Moderator Supervisor. The Moderator Supervisor may propose their successors to the moderating team. The moderating team must agree on the selection of the follow-up supervisor. MODERATOR INFO: rec.gardens.ecosystems * Moderator Supervisor: Don Chapman don@bio-organics.com * Moderator: Bill Robinson roseguy@flash.net * Moderator: Ronald Zwaagstra r.zwaagstra@ppsw.rug.nl Appendix E A Glossary of Botanical Terms * Abscission (ab-sizh'un) the controlled separation of leaves, flowers and fruit from plants * Adventitious root (ad-ven-tish'uss root) a root arising in an unexpected position such as along stems or on leaves * Adventitious shoot (ad-ven-tish'uss shoot) a shoot arising in an unexpeced position such as in internodes or on roots * Allelopathy (al-lel-op'-au-thee) the ability of a plant to produce toxic substances that inhibit the growth of neighboring plants * Alternation of generations (ol-tur-nay'shun-uv-jen-ur-ay'shunz) Alternation between a haploid gametophyte phase and a diploid sporophyte phase in the life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms * Angiosperm (an'jee-oh-spurm) a plant whose seeds develop within ovaries that mature into fruits * Annual (an'you-ul) a plant completing its life cycle within a single growing season * Anther (an'-thur) The pollen-bearing part of a stamen * Antheridium (an-thur-id'ee-um) the male sex organs of plants other than Gymnosperms and Angiosperms * Apical bud (ay'pi-kul bud) a bud at the tip of a stem * Apical dominance(ay'pi-kul dom-in-ance') the inhibition of axillary bud growth by the apical bud * Apical meristem (ay'pi-kul mair'i-stem) a region of actively dividing cells at the tip of a growing root or stem * Archegonium (ahr-kuh-goh'nee-um) the female sex organ of plants other than Angiosperms * Auxin (awk'sin) a plant hormone that controls cell elongation * Axil (ak'sil) the angle between the upper surface of a leaf and the stem to which it is attached * Axillary bud (ak'sil-air-ee bud) a bud located in an axil at the base of a leaf * Bark (bahrk) tissues of a woody stem between the vascular cambium and the exterior * Biennial (by-en'ee-ul) a plant completing its life-cycle within two growing seasons * Biotechnology (by-oh-tek-nol'-oh-jee) the manipulation of organisms, tissues, cells or molecules for specific applications * Bolting (bolt'-ing) the rapid growth of a stem prior to flowering * Bract (brakt) a modified leaf arising below a flower or inflorescence * Budding (bud'ing) a form of grafting in which the scion is a bud surrounded by a small shield of tissue * Bulb (buhlb) an underground food-storage organ that is essentially a modified bud growing from a solid, bottom basal plate surrounded by layers of fleshy leaves called 'scales'. * Callus (kal'uss) a corky tissue developed by woody species to cover wounds * Calyx (kay'liks) collective term for the sepals of a flower * Cambium (kam'bee-um) a meristem producing secondary tissues; see cork cambium and vascular cambium * Carbon-Fixing Reactions (kahr-bon fixing ree-ak'shunz) a cyclical series of chemical reactions that utilizes carbon dioxide and energy generated during the light reactions of photosynthesis to produce sugars * Carpel (kahr'pul) an ovule-bearing unit that is part of a pistil * Cell (sel) the basic strutural and functional unit of living organisms; in plants it consists of protoplasm surrounded by a cell wall * Chlorophyll (klor'uh-fil) green pigments located in the chloroplasts essential to photosynthesis * Chloroplast (klor'uh-plast) a cellular body in which photo-synthesis occurs * Chromosome (kroh'muh-sohm) a thread-like structure bearing genes in a cell nucleus * Cork (kork) the protective, outer tissue of bark * Cork cambium (kork kam'bee-um) a layer of cells between the exterior of a woody root or stem and the central vascular tissue; also called phellogen * Corm (korm) a short, swollen, underground stem in which food is stored * Cormel (kor'mel) a small undeveloped corm * Corolla (kuh-rahl'uh) collective term for the petals of a flower * Corona (kuh-ro'nah) an extra whorl of flower parts between the corolla and the stamens * Cortex (kor'teks) the tissue in roots and stems just inside the epidermis * Cotyledon (kot-uh-lee'dun) a seed leaf that either stores or absorbs food * Cultivar (kul'ta-var) a cultivated variety produced by horticultural techniques * Deciduous (duh-sij'yu-wuss) shedding leaves in one season * Dicot (dy'-kot) a class of angiosperms having two cotyledons * Differentially permeable membrane (dif-uh-rensh'uh-lee pur'mee-uh-bul mem'brayn) a membrance through which different substance diffuse at different rates * Diploid (dip'loyd) having two sets of chromosomes * DNA (dee-en-ay) deoxyribonulceic acid, the carrier of genetic information in cells and viruses * Dormant (dor'mant) a state of reduced cellular activity * Embryo (em'bree-oh) an immature plant within a seed * Endodermis (en-doh-dur'mis) a singler layer of cells surrounding the stele in roots and some stems * Epidermis (epe-uh-dur'mis) the exterior tissue, usually one cell thick, of leaves, young stems and roots, and other parts of plants * Epiphyte (ep'uh-fyt) an organism that is attached to and grows on another organism without parasitizing it * Etiolation (ee-tee-oh-lay'shun) the condition of a plant when grown without enough light; its stem is pale and elongated, the leaves are undeveloped * Exine (ek'seen) the outer layer of the wall of a pollen grain or spore * F1 (eff wun) first filial generation; the offspring of a cross between two parent plants * F2 (eff too) second filial generation; the offsdpring of F1 plants * Filament (fil'uh-mint) threadlike body of certain algae and fungi; also the stalk portion of the stamen * Frond (frond) a fern leaf; occassionally also applied to palm * Gamete (gam'eet) a sex cell; sperm or egg * Gametophyte (guh-me'toh-fyte) a haploid,gamete-producing plant in the alternation of generations * Genetic engineering (juh'net'ik en-juh-neer'ing) the introduction by artifical means, of genes from one form of DNA into another form of DNA * Gibberellin (jib-uh-rel'in) a plant hormone that regulates several processes including internode elongation and cell enlargement * Graft (graft) the union of a segment of a plant, the scion, with a rooted portion, the stock * Guard Cells (gahrd sel) one of a pair of cells surrounding a stoma * Gymnosperm (jim'noh-spurm) a plant whose seeds are not enclosed within an ovary during their development * Haploid (hap'loyd) having one set of unpaired chromosomes * Heartwood (hahrt'wood) the central, dark colored portions of non-living wood * Herbaceous (hur-bay'shuss) soft, green and containing little woody tissue * Humus(hum'us) organic mattter in the soil derived from the decomposition of plant and animal remains * Hybrid (hy'brid) offspring of two parents that differ in one or more genes * Hypha (pl. hyphae)(hy'fuh; pl. hy'fee) a singler, usually tubular, thread-like filament of a fungus * Imbibition (im-buh-bish'um) The process of water absorption by a dry substance or structure, causing it to swell * Inflorescence (in-fluh-res'ints)a collective term for a group of flowers attached to a common axis * Integument (in-teg'yu-mint) the outermost layer of an ovule; usually develops into a seed coat; a gymnosperm ovule usually has a single integument, and an angiosperm ovule usually has two integuments * Internode (in'tur-node) the segmnent of a stem between two nodes * Lateral meristem (lat'uh-rul mair'i-stem) a region where cells divide, located along the length of a stem or root * Layering (lay'er-ing) a method of plant propagation in which adventitious roots are developed on an intact plant before the rooted section is removed * Leaf (leef) a flattened, usually photosynthetic structure arranged in various ways on a stem * Lenticel (lent'uh-sel) a small, gas-exchange opening in the cork of a woody stem * Lignin (lig'nin) a tough, plant substance that deposits in cell walls * Lipid (lip'id) a general term for fats, fatty substances, and oils * Loam (lo'm) a mixture of sand, silt, and clay * Meiosis (my-oh'sis) a cell divisional process in which the chromosome number is reduced by half * Membrane (mem'brain) a thin, sheet-like structure composed of protein and fats surrounding the cytoplasm, organelles, and other cell structures * Meristem (mair'i-stem) a region in which undifferentiated cells divide * Middle lamella (mid'ul luh-mel'uh) a layer of material rich in pectin that cements two adjacent cell walls together * Mitosis (my-toh'sis) a cell divisional process in which the chromosomes are duplicated * Monocot (mon-oh-kot') a class of angiosperms whose seeds have a single cotyledon * Motile (moh'tul) capable of independent movement * Mutations (myu-tay'shun) an inheritable change in a gene or chromosome * Mycelium (my-see'lee-um) a mass of fungal hyphae * Mycorrhiza (my-kuh-ry'zuh)-(pl. mycorrhizae)(pl. my-kuh-ry'zee) Beneficial soil fungi that live in a symbiotic relationship with most plants * Node (nohd) region of a stem where one of more leaves are attached * Nucleus (new'klee-uss) the body within a cell controlling its activites, including inheritance * Organelle (or-guh-nel') a membrane-bound body in the cytoplasm of a cell; there are several kinds, each with a specific function * Osmosis (oz-moh'sis) the diffusion of water or other solvents through a differentially permeable membrane from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration * Ovary (oh'vuh-ree) the enlarged basal portion of a pistil that contains an ovule or ovules and usually develops into a fruit * Ovule (oh'vyool) a structure of seed plants that contains a female gametophyte and has the potential to develop into a seed * Palisade cell (pal-uh-sayd' sel) a photosynthetic cell directly beneath the upper leaf epidermis * Parenchyma (puh-ren'kuh-muh) a thin-walled undifferentiated cell * Pectin (pek'tin) a water-soluble organic compound occuring primarily in the middle lamella; becomes a jelly when combined with organic acids and sugar * Pedicel (ped'i-sel) the stalk of an individual flower in an inflorescence * Peduncle (pee'dun-kul) the stalk of a solidary flower or the main stalk of an inflorescence * Perennial (per-ren'e-yel) a plant that lives through several growing seasons * Petiole (pet'ee-ohl) the stalk of a leaf pH (pee-aitch) a measure of relative acidity or alkalinity * Phellogen (fel'uh-jun) see cork cambium * Pheromone (feh'uh-mohn) something produced by an organism that facilitates chemical communication with another organism * Phloem (flohm) the food-conducting tissue of plants * Photoperiodism (foh-toh-pir'ee-ud-izm) the initiation of flowering in response to relative lengths of day and night * Photosynthesis (foh-toh-sin'thuh-sis) the process in which light energy is used to form foods from carbon dioxide and water * Pistil (pis'tul) a female reproductive structure of a flower; composed of one or more carpels and consisting of an ovary, style, and stigma * Pith (pith) central parenchyma tissue of a dicot stem and certain roots * Polyploid (pahl-i-ploy'ed) having three or more sets of chromosomes * Quiescence (kwy'ess-ens) a state in which a seed or other plant parts will not germinate or grow unless environmental conditions normally required for growth are presnt * Raceme (ra-sem') a branching arrangement where the flowers are attached to the main stem by short stalks * Radicle (rad'i-kuhl) the part of an embryo in a seed that develops into a root * Respiration (res-puh-ray'shun) the cellular breakdown of sugar and other foods, accomplished by release of energy * Rhizome (ry'zohm) an underground, horizontal stem that grows on or just below the sosil surface * Root (root) a plant organ that anchors the plant to the soil and absorbs water and minerals * Root cap (root kap) a protective, thimble-shaped mass of cells at the tip of a growing root * Root hair (root hair) a hair-like projection of a root's epidermal cell * Root nodule (root nod'uel) a small swelling on a root resulting from invasion by nitrogen-fixing bacteria * Sapwood (sap'wood) the lighter outer layers of wood that transports water and minerals in a tree trunk * Scion (sy'un) a segment of plant that is grafted onto a stock * Seed (seed) a mature ovule containing an embryo and bound by a protective coat * Seed Coat (seed' koht) the outer boundary layer of a seed; developed by the integument(s) * Sepal (see'puhl) a unit of the calyx that frequently resembles a reduced leaf; sepals often function in protecting the unopened flower bud * Shoot (shoot) a stem bearing leaves * Sorus (sor'uss) an area of spore production on the underside of a fern leaf * Spike (spike) a branching arrangement where the flowers are attached directly to the main stem * Spore (spor) a reproductive cell that grows directly into a new plant; sexual spores formed as a result of meiosis are often called meiospores'; spores produced by mitosis are often called vegitative spores' * Sporophyte (spor'uh-fyt) a diploid, spore-producing plant in an alternation of generations * Stamen (stay'min) a pollen-producing structure of a flower; consists of an anther and usually also a filament * Stele (steel) the central cylinder of tissue in a stem or root; usually consistinig of xylem and phloem * Stem (stem) the leaf-and flower-bearing part of a plant * Stigma (stig'muh) the pollen receptive area of a pistil; also the eyespot of certain motile algae * Stock (stok) a rooted plant into which a scion is inserted in grafting * Stollon (stoh'lun) a stem that grows vertically below the surface of the ground; typically has relatively long internodes * Stoma (pl. stomata)(stoh'muh; pl. stoh'mah-tuh) a pore in the epidermis of leaves and herbaceous stems flanked by two guard cells that regulate its opening and closing thus regulating gas exchange and transpiration * Style (styl) the structure that connects a stigma and an ovary * Suberin (soo'buh-rin) a fatty plant substance present in the walls of cork cells * Symbiosis (sim-by-oh'siss) the living together for mutual benefit of two or more organisms of different species * Tissue (tish'yu) an aggregation of cells having a common function * Tissue Culture (tish'yu kult'yur) the culture of isolated living tissue on an artificial medium * Transpiration (trans-puh-ray'shun) loss of water in vapor form; most transporation takes place through the stomata * Tuber (too'bur) a swollen, fleshy underground stem (e.g., white potato) * Tuberous Roots (too'bur-us roots) swollen, fleshly roots specialized to store nutrients * Turgid (tur'jid) firm or swollen because of internal water pressures resulting from osmosis * Vascular Cambium (vas'kyu-lur kam'bee-um) a narrow cylinder of cells that gives rise to secondary xylem and phloem; a lateral meristem * Vascular Tissue (vas'kyu-lur tish'yu) a group of fodd-or water-conducting cells * Wood (wood) the dense secondary xylem in stems and roots * Xylem (zy'lim) The water-conducting tissue of plants * Zygote (zy'goht) the product of the union of a sperm and an egg