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DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY -- NAVAL HISTORICAL CENTER
805 KIDDER BREESE SE -- WASHINGTON NAVY YARD
WASHINGTON DC 20374-5060
Naval History Bibliographies, No. 4
The Reestablishment of the Navy, 1787-1801
Historical Overview and Select Bibliography
Michael J. Crawford Christine F. Hughes |
 |

"Preparation for War to defend Commerce. The Swedish Church Southwark with the building
of the Frigate Philadelphia."
W. Birch & Son. Courtesy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, N.Y.
Naval History Bibliographies, No. 4
The Reestablishment
of the Navy,
1787-1801
Historical Overview
and
Select Bibliography
Michael J. Crawford
Christine F. Hughes
Naval Historical Center
Department of the Navy
Washington
1995
Secretary of the Navy's Advisory Subcommittee on Naval History
(as of 8 May 1995)
CDR Wesley A. Brown, USN (Ret.)
Dr. Frank G. Burke
Mr. J. Revell Carr
VADM Robert F. Dunn USN (Ret.)
RADM Russell W. Gorman, USNR (Ret.)
Dr. Jose-Marie Griffiths
Dr. Beverly Schreiber Jacoby
Mr. Richard L. Joutras
Dr. Vera D. Mann
Ambassador J. William Middendorf II
Dr. William N. Still, Jr.
Dr. Betty Miller Unterberger
Mr. William D. Wilkinson
Pen and ink drawings by John Charles Roach
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Crawford, Michael J., 1950-
The Reestablishment of the Navy, 1787-1801: historical overview
and select bibliography / Michael J. Crawford, Christine F. Hughes.
p. cf.--(Naval bibliographies ; no. 4)
Includes index.
ISBN 0-945274-32-7 (alik. paper)
1. United States--History, Naval--To 1900--Bibliography
2. United States--History, Naval--To 1900. 3. United States.
Navy--History--Bibliography. 4. United States. Navy--History.
I. Hughes, Christine F,m 1949-- . II. Title. III Series.
Z1249.N3C73 1995
[E183]
016.359'00973--dc20 |
95-19841 CIP |
The paper used in this publication meets the requirements for permanence
established by the American National Standard for Information Sciences.
"Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials" (ANSI Z 39.48--1984).
--iv--
Contents
--v--
[Blank Page]
--vi--
Foreword
The purpose of this publication is to encourage understanding and
further study of events associated with the rebirth of the American
Navy in the 1790s. In comprehending the significance of this milestone
in our naval history, one needs to remember that the United
States Navy traces its beginnings to the Continental Navy that was established
in 1775 at the outset of the American Revolution. Following
the winning of American independence, however, our nation elected
to have no navy for a period of almost ten years.
America's founding fathers included provisions for a navy in the
new federal constitution of 1789.
But actual steps to create that service
did not occur until the mid-1790s, when America's thriving overseas
shipping and trade became targets of attacks and interference.
These foreign threats, combined with the determination by many
leaders to establish the United States as a major power, led President
washington and Congress to recognize the need to restore American
defenses at sea.
It is possible to argue that the decision to re-create a navy in the
turbulent decade of the 1890s is as significant an event as the founding
of the Continental Navy in 1775. The nation's experiment in
doing without a naval force in the years following the American Revolution
proved to be entirely unsatisfactory. Simply put, we learned in
this period that the United States faced unpredictable threats, from
different sources and in several regions, that needed to be met by a
navy capable of defending American interests on the high seas. As we
approach the twenty-first century, that recognition still explains why
our country needs to maintain a strong navy.
Michael J. Crawford, who heads the Naval Historical Center's Early
History Branch, and his associate, Christine F. Hughes, deserve praise
for the fine scholarship reflected in this volume. In addition, the Center
deeply appreciates the contributions of several noted authorities on
early American history who offered their criticisms and suggestions as
this volume evolved through several drafts. Those individuals included
William M. Fowler, Jr., Northeastern University; Harold D. Langley,
Smithsonian Institution; Christopher McKee, Grinnell College;
William J. Morgan, Naval Historical Center emeritus; and Michael A.
Palmer, East Carolina University.
--vii--
Despite the invaluable assistance they received, the authors alone
are responsible for this volue. I join them in expressing the hope that
this puboication will be a valuable resource for any indicidual interested
in the historical development of our nation and the American navy.
|
Dean C. Allard Director of Naval History |
--viii--
The Reestablishment
of the Navy,
1787-1801
--1--

"A View of the American Merchant Ship Planter beating off a French National
Privateer of 22 Guns July 10th 1779.'
A sketch attributed to B.F. McCarthy, USN.
Courtesy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, N.Y.
--2--
Historical Overview of the Federalist Navy, 1787-1801
First Naval Legislation under the Constitution
"Without a Respectable Navy--Alas America" wrote Captain John
Paul Jones of the Continental Navy early in the American Revolutionary
War.1
After the United States won its independence, however,
Congress, under the
Articles of Confederation,
was too weak to maintain
more than a token armed force. The United States had financed
the war through huge foreign loans and by issuing paper money.
Without taxing power, the Confederation could not pay off the debt.
Although the government possessed one tremendous asset, western
lands, it would take time to transform that asset into cash. For the
present, the Confederation government could not afford to maintain
a single warship. The last ship of the Continental Navy, the frigate
Alliance, was sold in 1785, and its commander, Captain John Barry, returned
to civilian life. The navy disappeared and the army dwindled
to a mere 700 men.
The infant Republic's military weakness further convinced American
nationalists of the necessity of adopting a new constitution that
would increase the authority of the national government, particularly
by giving it the power of taxation. The issue of naval power, itself,
produced little debate during the Constitutional Convention in
1787. The frame of government proposed by the convention gave
Congress power to raise money to "provide and maintain a navy,"
which implies a permanent naval establishment, as contrasted with
the power "to raise and support armies," which suggests that armies
would exist as temporary expedients. Whereas the Constitution restricted
army appropriations to two years, it left the term of naval
appropriations unlimited. Navies were not thought to pose the same
threat to political liberty as did standing armies, After all, as Thomas
Jefferson had once observed, "a naval force can never endanger our
liberties, nor occasion bloodshed; a land force would do
both";2 or,
as James Madison would argue in favor of ratification of the Constitution,
a navy could "never be turned by a perfidious government
against our liberties."3
"If the new Constitution is adopted, as there is reason to expect,"
John Paul Jones wrote in December 1787, "American will soon be a
very respectable Nation; and the creation of a Marine For e will necessarily
be among the first objects of her
policy."4
Despite his wishful
reasoning and the initiation of the ratified Constitution in 1789,
--3--
when Jones died in 1792 the only U.S. naval force was the Treasury
Department's Revenue Cutter Service, a forerunner of the United
States Coast Guard.
The clear necessity of defending the nation's seaborne commerce
finally moved Congress to create a navy in the spring of 1794. With
the beginning of the wars of the French Revolution in 1793, British
warships began interfering with American trade with France, and
French warships with American trade with Great Britain. Another
source of genuine danger to American commerce came from corsairs
of North Africa's Barbary Coast. Raiders sailing from the ports of Morocco,
Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis had long forced European powers either
to maintain naval squadrons on station in the Mediterranean or
to pay annual tribute to assure non-interference with merchant shipping.
Previous to the American Revolution, American merchantmen
in that region enjoyed the protection of the British government, but
that protection evaporated with independence. In 1785 Algerine corsairs
made their first seizures of American vessels, two merchantmen,
taking twenty-two passengers and crew members prisoner. Congress
declined to pay ransom, and by 1793 six of the prisoners had died in
captivity. In 1793 Portugal, whose navy had bee keeping the Algerine
corsairs within the confines of the Mediterranean, signed a truce
with Algiers. Soon after, Algerines sailed into the Atlantic to prey on
American merchantmen. Before the end of the year they held over
100 Americans prisoners.
Congressional debate on the wisdom of reviving the navy began
in earnest at the end of 1793. In his annual address to Congress on 3
December, President Washington spoke in general terms of the nation's
need to prepare to defend itself: "If we desire to avoid insult, we
must be able to repel it; if we desire to secure peace . . .&nbp;, it must be
known, that we are at all times ready for
War."5
A few days later, news
reached Philadelphia of the truce between Portugal and Algiers, opening
the way for Barbary corsairs to cruise the Atlantic and imperil
American trade with much of Europe. On 16 December the President
forwarded to Congress documents on the unsatisfactory negotiations.
Representatives resolved on 2 January 1794 "that a naval force adequate
to the protection of the commerce of the United States, against
the Algerine corsairs, ought to be provided," and appointed a committee
to prepare a report on what kind of naval force would be necessary
to deal with the menace. On 20 January 1794, committee chairman
Thomas Fitzsimons, a Federalist from Pennsylvania, reported a resolution
to authorize the procurement of six frigates, a force thought sufficient
for the purpose.6
--4--
Despite the real threat to American commerce, congressional approval
of naval legislation was far from certain. By the 1790s some
theorists of republican government were arguing that navies posed
greater dangers to liberty than did armies. They maintained that the
major expense of constructing, fitting out, and manning warships
meant large expenditures and mounting taxes, and they considered
this transfer of wealth from the people via politicians into the hands
of a few to be a source of political corruption. Influenced by these beliefs,
several congressmen spoke in opposition to the proposal to procure
six frigates. Some surmised that the Algerines were acting on behalf
of the British and that going to war with the former would risk
an Anglo-American war. They thought that paying tribute would be
wiser and cheaper than building a navy. One congressman even suggested
the alternative of hiring the Portuguese navy to protect American
commerce. Opponents of the naval measure also questioned
whether the six frigates proposed would be adequate to the object intended,
and whether negotiation would not be a less costly and more
effective means of attaining the desired end.
The pro-Navy side was strengthened when the President sent documentation
supporting the view that a navy was essential, and by the
almost simultaneous arrival of distressing news that the British had
prohibited all neutral trade with the French West Indies. The "Act to
provide a naval armament," authorizing the President to acquire six
frigates, four of forty-four guns each and two of thirty-six, by purchase
or otherwise, passed the House of Representatives by a vote of
fifty to thirty-nine. Those congressmen who voted in favor came principally
from cities that depended on maritime trade, and from the
northern and eastern regions. Opponents came from rural areas, the
south, and the frontier. The act passed the Senate and was signed by
the President on 27 March 1794.
Secretary of War Henry Knox, responsible for the construction of
these ships, reported to Congress in December 1794 that the passing
of the act
created an anxious solicitude that this second commencement
of a navy for the United States should be worthy of
their national character. That the vessels should combine
such qualities of strength, durability, swiftness of sailing, and
force, as to render them equal, if not superior, to any frigates
belonging to any of the European
Powers.7
His succinct phrase, "this second commencement of a navy for
the United States," summarized the resounding significance of this
act. THe "anxious solicitude" felt by the nation's leaders led to the design
and building of superb ships of war.
--5--
Construction of the First Six Frigates
Without a Department of the Navy, implementation of the 1794
naval legislation fell to the Department of War, headed by Henry
Knox until 1794, Timothy Pickering from 1795 to 1796, and James
McHenry from 1796 to 1798. After consulting several persons knowledgeable
about warship construction, including John Foster Williams,
a captain in the Massachusetts Navy during the Revolution; John
Barry, a former Continental Navy captain; Joshua Humphreys, a
Philadelphia shipbuilder; and James Hackett, shipbuilder for the Continental
Navy at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, Knox made recommendations
to Washington on 15 April 1794, which the President accepted
immediately. Rather than purchasing merchant ships and
converting them into men-of-war, an option under the act, Knox recommended
the construction of new frigates designed to be superior to
any vessel of that class in European navies. To keep labor costs down,
government employees rather than private contractors would build
the ships, and construction sites would be distributed geographically
in order to spread the economic benefit and win popular support. "It
is just and wise to proportion . . . benefits as nearly as may be to those
places or states which pay the greatest amount to its support," Knox
advised. Although it might be cheaper to build the frigates successively
in a single place, "a few thousand dollars in the expences will
be no object compared with the satisfaction a just distribution would
afford."8
The President approved six construction sites: Portsmouth, N.H.;
Boston, Mass.; New York, N.Y.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Baltimore, Md.; and
Gosport (Norfolk), Va. At each site, a civilian naval constructor was
hired to direct the work. Navy captains were appointed as superintendents,
one for each of the six frigates. John Barry, last officer of the
Continental Navy in active service, received commission number one
as the first officer in the new United State Navy.
Construction of the First Six Frigates
|
Site |
Frigate |
Guns |
Superintendent |
Naval Constructor |
|
Portsmouth |
Congress |
36 |
James Sever |
James Hackett |
Boston |
Constitution |
44 |
Samuel Nicholson |
George Claghorn |
New York |
President |
44 |
Silas Talbot |
Forman Cheeseman |
Philadelphia |
United States |
44 |
John Barry |
Joshua Humphreys |
Baltimore |
Constellation |
36 |
Thomas Truxtun |
David Stodder |
Gosport |
Chesapeake |
36 |
Richard Dale |
Josiah Fox |
--6--
Because of the difficulty of gathering supplies and the decision
to build major structural components out of live oak, which had to
be harvested in southern forests, construction proceeded slowly. In
March 1795 Secretary of War Timothy Pickering prepared a list of
ten suggested names for the ships. It is likely that President Washington
selected five of them: Constitution, United States, President,
Constellation, and Congress. Chesapeake's name was designated some
time later.
The warships were still being framed when, in early 1796, word
came of a negotiated peace between the United States and Algiers, at
the cost of nearly one million dollars, which included payment of
ransom for the American prisoners and the cost of building the 32-gun
frigate Crescent for the Dey's fleet. The act authorizing the six
frigates called for a halt in construction in the event of peace with Algiers,
but President Washington urged Congress to extend authorization
to complete the six frigates.
Congress approved the completion of only three of the frigates.
The other three would remain in their partially constructed state. Accordingly,
on 20 April 1796 the President signed the "Act supplementary
to an act, entitled 'An act to provide a naval armament." Under
the terms of the 1796 act the frigate United States was launched at
Philadelphia on 10 May 1797; the Constellation, at Baltimore on 7 September
1797; and the Constitution, at Boston on 21 October 1797.
In his last annual address to Congress in December 1796, President
Washington urged "the gradual creation of a navy for the protection
of the country's commerce.9
Nevertheless, during the ensuing
year Congress remained divided over whether to allow the three new
frigates to fit out and man in preparation for duty at sea. In July 1797,
however, the French government's disdain for American rights to
trade with France's enemies prompted Congress to authorize the President
to man and employ the three frigates.
France had been America's major ally in the War of Independence,
and without its assistance the United States may not have won
independence. The new government of Revolutionary France viewed
a 1794 commercial agreement between the United States and Great
Britain, known as Jay's Treaty, as a violation of France's 1778 treaties
with the United States. The French increased their seizures of American
ships trading with their British enemies and refused to receive a
new United States minister when he arrived in Paris in December
1796. In his annual message to Congress at the close of 1797, President
John Adams reported on France's refusal to negotiate and spoke
of the need "to place our country in a suitable posture of
defense."10
In April of 1798 President Adams informed Congress of the infamous
"X Y Z Affair," in which three French agents demanded a large bribe
--7--
for the restoration of relations with the United States. Outraged by
this affront to national honor, on 27 April 1798 Congress authorized
the President to acquire, arm, and man no more than twelve vessels,
of up to twenty-two guns each. Under the terms of this act several
vessels were purchased and converted into ships of war. One of these,
the Ganges, a Philadelphia-built merchant ship, became "the first
man-of-war to fit out and get to sea [24 May 1798] under the second
organization of the Navy."11
In March 1798 an overworked Secretary of War James McHenry
brought before Congress the problem of his responsibility for naval
affairs. Naval administration had become a significant portion of his
department's work, as it had for the Department of the Treasury,
which oversaw all the navy's contracting and disbursing. The Department
of War also had received congressional criticism for what was
seen as the mismanagement and the excessive cost of the naval construction
program. In addition, the growing trouble with the French
induced Congress to authorize an increase in the size of the navy and
raised the possibility that the navy would be called on to confront
French privateers.
In response to the obvious need for an executive department responsible
solely for, and staffed with persons competent in, naval affairs,
Congress passed a bill establishing the Department of the Navy.
President John Adams signed that historic act on 30 April 1798. Benjamin
Stoddert, a Maryland merchant who served as secretary to the
Continental Board of War during the American Revolution, became
the first secretary of the navy. One historian writes that Stoddert
"was a classic Navalist" who "desired an American navy which
could, not only protect commerce, but which would increase American
prestige."12
On 28 May Congress authorized the public vessels of the United
States to capture armed French vessels hovering off the coast of the
United States, initiating the undeclared Quasi-War with France. That
conflict led to the rapid passage of several pieces of naval legislation.
An act of 30 June gave the President authority to accept ships on loan
from private citizens, who would be paid in interest-bearing government
bonds. On 9 July Congress authorized U.S. naval vessels to capture
armed French vessels anywhere on the high seas, not just off the
coast of the United States. This act also sanctioned the issuance of privateering
commissions. Two days alter, the President signed the act
that established the United States Marine Corps. On 16 July Congress
appropriated funds to build and equip the three remaining frigates
begun under the Act of 1794: Congress, launched at Portsmouth, N.H.,
on 15 August 1799; Chesapeake, at Gosport, Va., on 2 December 1799;
and President, at New York, N.Y., on 10 April 1800.
--8--
Quasi-War with France
Secretary of the Navy Stoddert realized that the navy possessed too few
warships to protect a far-flung merchant marine by using convoys or by
patrolling the North American coast. Rather, he concluded that the best
way to defeat the French campaign against American shipping was by
offensive operations in the Caribbean, where most of the French cruisers
were based. Thus at the very outset of the conflict, the Department
of the Navy adopted a policy of going to the source of the enemy's
strength. Nevertheless, by 1799, in response to the merchants' insistent
demands for protection, naval vessels were convoying merchant ships
in the Caribbean in addition to cruising against the enemy.
When Stoddert became secretary in June 1798, only one American
naval vessel was deployed. By the end of the year a force of
twenty ships was planned for the Caribbean. Before the war ended,
the force available to the navy approached thirty vessels, with some
700 officers and 5,000 seamen.
The highlight of the first year of the undeclared war was the capture
by Thomas Truxtun's Constellation of the French frigate l'Insurgente
in February 1799. In addition, American naval vessels seized nineteen
French privateers during the winter of 1798-99. The French challenge
to American naval forces increased late in 1799 as six French warships
arrived in the Antilles with instructions to intensify the commercial
war. The American squadrons responded aggressively. Constellation
fought to a draw the more powerful la Vengeance on 1 February 1800.
Silas Talbot engineering an expedition in the Puerto Plata harbor in t.
Domingo, a possession of France's ally Spain, on 11 May 1800 in
which a naval force under Lieutenant Isaac Hull cut out the French privateer
Sandwich from the harbor and spiked the guns in the Spanish
fort. By the end of the war American ships had made prizes of approximately
eighty-five French vessels. American successes resulted from a
combination of Stoddert's administrative skill in deploying effectively
his limited forces and the initiative of his seagoing officers.
Although they were fighting the same enemy, the Royal Navy and
the United States Navy did not cooperate operationally, nor did they
share operational plans or come to mutual understandings about deployment
of their forces. The British did sell the American government
naval stores and munitions. And the two navies shared a system of signals
by which to recognize each other's warships at sea and allowed
merchantmen of their respective nations to join their
convoys.13
By October 1800, the aggressiveness of the cruisers of the United
States Navy, ad well as of those of the Royal Navy, combined with a
more conciliatory diplomatic stance by the French toward America,
produced a reduction in the activity of the French privateers and warships.
In mid-December 1800 news reached Washington that a peace
--9--
treaty with France (Convention of Mortefontaine, 30 September 1800),
ended the Quasi-War.
The war highlighted several weaknesses in the fledgling navy,
both in the shore establishment and in the operational forces. Problems
arose in procurement, provisioning, manning of ships, delegation
of authority, and planning for an extensive campaign. Squadron
commanders learned that they required smaller ships to pursue
enemy privateers in shallow waters. Many of the merchantmen converted
into men-of-war proved to be poor sailers. During the first year
of the war, Stoddert did not fully coordinate the rotation of vessels refitting
in port with those on stations requiring relief. By restricting th
enlistments in the navy to one year, Congress effectively limited the
time that ships could remain deployed. The leadership qualities
among Stoddert's senior officers varied widely and politics and personal
jealousies often stymied his attempts to assign them to the
navy's best advantage. One of the navy's senior officers, Captain Isaac
Phillips, was dismissed for permitting a British officer to board his
ship, USS Baltimore and press several seamen.
Federalist Legacy
Secretary of the Navy Stoddert was concerned not only with daily administrative
and operational activities but also with increasing the
navy's strength for the future. Using some of the money Congress appropriated
for shipbuilding, Stoddert established six navy yards. In a
December 1798 proposal to Congress, he also advocated building
twelve ships of the line, twelve frigates, and twenty ships of up to
twenty-four guns. Congress initially approved the construction of six
ships of the line. But as the war with France wound down in 1800 the
prospects for a stronger naval force dimmed. President John Adams
shared Stoddert's commitment to a strong navy. Whereas Adams supported
a cruiser navy, however, his secretary wanted to build ships of
the line, keep thirteen frigates, and sell off the smaller vessels. Stoddert
reasoned that in the event of another war the government could
purchase smaller vessels more readily than larger ones. The navy
needed to have the larger vessels built before any conflict erupted because
of their length construction process. Congress, in a cost-cutting
mood, adopted the Peace Establishment Act, which kept the
frigates but eliminated construction of the ships of the line and drastically
reduced the officer corps. Adams could have left this naval legislation
--10--
to the new Jeffersonian Republican administration, which won
the fall 1800 elections, but reasoned that the Jeffersonians might
make even deeper cuts. In one of his last duties as President, he signed
the act on 3 March 1801.
President Thomas Jefferson commenced his administration intent
on reducing the navy's budget. Renewed problems with the Barbary
States in 1801, however, forced him to send a small squadron to the
Mediterranean as a show of force. Before the American squadron
could leave its native shores, Tripoli declared war on the United
States, compelling the President to wage a prolonged overseas war
that did not conclude until 1805. In effect, therefore, this conflict resulted
in the Republicans confirming their political opponents' fateful
decision in the 1790s to reestablish a United States Navy.
During the first dozen years under the Constitution, the new nation
grappled with the difficulties of developing a naval force. In giving
the navy its "second commencement," the nation's executive and
legislative leaders dealt with problems relating to finance, warship
technology and design, an infrastructure of shipyards and shipwrights,
sources of raw materials and naval stores, necessary fore size,
officering, and manning. They struggled with these challenges within
the contexts of a complex international situation and of concerns
about constitutional authority, high taxes, cost overruns, and political
corruption. Ultimately, the United States Navy was reestablished with
the purposes of defending the country's commerce and asserting its
rights on the high seas as a sovereign nation.
--11--
[Footnotes moved to end of document.]
--12--
Needs and Opportunities for Research and Writing
The contents of this bibliography highlight the strengths and weaknesses
of the scholarship on the navy of the Federalist era. Scholars
have written extensively on the politics of the reestablishment of the
navy; on leading policy makers, including presidents, cabinet members
and congressmen; on naval officers; on early shipbuilding; and
on the operations of the Quasi-War. No doubt, there is still room for
future scholars to find new things to say about each of these subjects.
On the naval shipbuilding program, for instance, over the course of
this century scholars have debated the relative roles of Josiah Fox and
Joshua Humphreys as designers of the 1790s frigates, and writers have
explored several technical aspects of naval ship design. Yet, we lack a
full-length biography of Humphreys and a study of naval shipbuilding
as an industry during the Federalist era. Both would be valuable
and original contributions.
Several other significant aspects if naval history in the Federalist
era remain neglected. Almost untouched as a subject of scholarship is
the economic influence of the reestablishment of the navy on the nation
as well as on specific regions and towns. What impact did naval
shipbuilding and the navy's demand for supplies, ordnance, and munitions,
as well as sailors, have on the economy? The composition of
the enlisted force and related questions--recruitment, discipline, provisioning,
and living conditions--need to be studied. Topics in naval
medicine want their historians. Relations between the American and
British naval forces during the Quasi-War, the European reaction to
the reestablishment of the American navy, and the navy's relations
with civil authorities during the Quasi-War deserve further investigation.
How the new federal courts applied international, admiralty, and
prize law in cases involving the navy, as well as how naval personnel
understood those forms of law, are worthy topics The records of the
courts, civil and military, are rich but underused sources of information
about the early navy. It is generally agreed that the navy during
the War of 1812 played a significant role in strengthening American
nationalist sentiment, but did the navy have a similar function in the
Federalist period? Studies of naval iconography in popular culture, including
broadsides, ballads, prints, decorative motifs on furniture and
architecture, parades, and the toasts offered at naval banquets might
provide answers.
--13--

"A View of the American Frigate, Constellation, capturing the
French National Frigate, l'Insurgente, within sight of Basseterre,
Feb 9th, 1799." Courtesy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, N.Y.
--14--
Bicentennial Award Competition
To mark the bicentennial of USS Constitution, which was authorized in
1794, launched in 1797, and ordered on its first cruise in 1798, as well
as the bicentennial of the establishment of the Department of the
Navy (1798), the Naval Historical Center will make an award of $750
for an article and an award of $2,500 for a book, related to a bicentennial
theme and based on original research, published or accepted for
publication between 1994 and 1998. Articles and books whose subject
related to any aspect of the history of USS Constitution in any time period,
or to any aspect of the history of the Federal navy, ca. 1787 to
1801, are eligible.
Nominations should be made by 30 June 1998, and must include
one copy of the article or book, or, if the work is not yet in print, of
the manuscript along with evidence that the work has been accepted
for publication. Announcement of the awards will be made in December
1009. Nominations should be sent to:
Senior Historian
Naval Historical Center
Washington Navy Yard
901 M Street SE
Washington, DC 20374-5060
An EEO/AA Employer
--15--

"Huzza for the Constellation. Sung by Mr. Fox at the Theatre."
Printed at B. Carr's Musical Repository Philadelphia, circa 1799.
Naval Historical Center, Washington, D.C.
--16--
Select Bibliography of Published Works
This bibliography on the United Stated Navy in the Federalist period
(1787-1801) represents a compilation of citations to published contemporary
source materials, twentieth-century studies, and selected
nineteenth-century works of particular research value. Organized topically,
the entires are annotated only to explain the content of works
whose titles are not self-explanatory. United States Naval History: A
Bibliography (Seventh Edition, 1993), published by the Naval Historical
Center, lists additional general studies that may include discussion of
the Federalist period.
--17--
General Studies and Monographs
-
Fowler, William M., Jr. Jack Tars and Commodores: The American
Navy, 1783-1815. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1984. 318 pp.
-
Long, David F. Gold Braid and Foreign Relations: Diplomatic Activities
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Nash, Howard P., Jr., The Forgotten Wars: The Role of the U.S. Navy in
the Quasi War with France and the Barbary Wars, 1798-1805. (New
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Albion, Robert G. Makers of Naval Policy, 1798-1947. Edited by
Rowena Reed. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1980. 737 pp.
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Anderson, William G. "John Adams and the Creation of the American
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___________________. "John Adams, the Navy, and the Quasi-War with France."
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Bolander, L. H. "An Incident in the Founding of the American
Navy." United States Naval Institute Proceedings 55 (June 1929); 491-94.
--18--
A caucus in January 1794 at which several senators and representatives
and Secretaries Hamilton and Knox discussed a plan for
establishing a national navy.
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Calkins, Carlos Gilman. "The American Navy and the Opinions of
One of Its Founders, John Adams, 1735-1826." United States Naval
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Carter, Edward C., H. "Matthew Carey, Advocate of American Naval
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Frost, Holloway H. "How We Got Our Navy." United States Naval
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Hayes, Frederic H. "John Adams and American Sea Power." American
Neptune 25 (January 1965): 35-45.
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Henrich, Joseph G. "The Triumph of Ideology: The Jeffersonians and
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Kelly, John Joseph, Jr. "The Struggle for American Seaborne Independence
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Maine, 1973. 396 pp.
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O'Connor, Raymond G. Origins of the American Navy: Sea Power in
the Colonies and New Nation. Lanham, Md.: University Press of
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Rogers, George C. Evolution of a Federalist: William Loughton Smith
of Charleston (1758-1812). Columbia: University of South Carolina
Press, 1962. 439 pp.
Smith served in Congress form the First Congress until 10 July
1797 when he resigned to become minister to Portugal. He advocated
a strong American naval force in the Mediterranean to keep
the Barbary Powers in check.
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Rohr, John A. "Constitutional Foundations of the United States
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The debate between Federalists and Anti-Federalists over the
constitutional basis of a navy.
--19--
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Sharrer, G. Terry. "The Search for a Naval Policy, 1783-1812." In In
Peace and War: Interpretations of American Naval History, 1775-1984,
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Smelser, Marshall. The Congress Founds the Navy, 1787-1798. Notre
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Sofaer, Abraham D. "John Adams and Undeclared War as National
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Sprout, Harold, and Margaret Sprout. The Rise of American Naval
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Symonds, Craig L. Navalists and Antinavalists: The Naval Policy Debate
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Naval Administration
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Bauer, K. Jack, ed. The New American State Papers: Naval Affairs.
10 vols. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1981.
Material selected from the Gales and Seaton American State Papers,
the congressional serial set, and previously unpublished documents
from the National Archives.
--20--
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Stoddert, Benjamin. "Benjamin Stoddert Calls for Massive Naval
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__________________. "Letters of Benjamin Stoddert, First Secretary of the Navy,
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United States Congress, American State Papers, Documents, Legislative
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Albion, Robert G. "The First Days of the Navy Department." Military
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How Benjamin Stoddert shaped the Navy Department.
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Carrigg, John Joseph. "Benjamin Stoddert and the Foundation of the
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________________. "Benjamin Stoddert, 18 June 1798-31 March 1801." In
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Crackel, Theodore J. "The Common Defence: The Department of
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Ford, Henry J. "Timothy Pickering." In The American Secretaries of
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Jones, Robert F. "The Naval Thought and Policy of Benjamin Stoddert,
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Paullin, Charles O. Paullin's History of Naval Administration, 1775-1911.
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A collection of articles from the United States Naval Institute
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_______________. "Washington City and the Old Navy." Records of the Columbia
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--21--
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Scheina, Robert L. "Benjamin Stoddert, Politics, and the Navy."
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Stener, Bernard C. The Life and Correspondence of James McHenry.
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Turner, Harriot Stoddert. "Memoirs of Benjamin Stoddert, First
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Contains Stoddert correspondence.
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Ward, Harry M. The Department of War, 1781-1795. Pittsburgh:
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White, Leonard D. The Federalists: A Study in Administrative History.
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Shipbuilding and Ordnance
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Brewington, Marlon V. "Who Built the Enterprize"? American
Neptune 4 (July 1944): 233-35.
Transcription of a list of vouchers for this schooner's expenditures
from 20 November 1798 to 31 January 1800.
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"Letters from the Joshua Humphreys Collection of the Historical
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Letters to Humphreys relating to naval construction.
--22--
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Smith, Philip C. F. The Frigate Essex Papers: Building the Salem Frigate,
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Baker, Maury. Cost Overrun, an Early Naval Precedent: Building
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(Fall 1977): 361-72.
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Barrows, John S. "The Beginning and Launching of the United
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Bass, William P. "Who Did Design the First U.S. Frigates?" Naval
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Bauer, K. Jack. "Naval Shipbuilding Programs, 1794-1860." Military
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Chapelle, Howard I. The History of the American Sailing Navy: The
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Dunne, W. M. P. "The South Carolina Frigate: A History of the U.S.
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Eddy, Richard. "'. p;. . Defended by an Adequate Power': Joshua
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Emery, William M. Colonel George Claghorn, Builder of Constitution.
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Ferguson, Eugene S. "The Figure-head of the United States Frigate
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__________________. "The Launch of the United States Frigate Constellation."
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_________________. "Gun Drill in the Sailing Navy, 1797 to 1840." American
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--23--
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Fowler, William M., Jr. "America's Super-Frigates." Mariner's Mirror
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Gilkerson, William. Boarders Away: With Steel; The Edged Weapons
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__________________. Boarders Away: With Steel II; The Edged Weapons
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Gillmer, Thomas C. Old Ironsides: The Rise, Decline, and Resurrection
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Gorr, Louis F. "The Foxall-Columbia Foundry: An Early Defense
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Humphreys, Henry H. "Who Built the First United States Navy?"
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Joshua Humphreys's great grandson used documentary evidence
to substantiate his great grandfather's place as the designer and constructor
of the navy's first vessels.
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Laing, Alexander. American Ships. New York: American Heritage
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Leiner, Frederick C. "The Subscription Warships of 1798." American
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History of the nine privately financed, privately constructed
naval vessels.
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Martin, Tyrone G., and John C. Roach. "Humphreys's Real Innovation."
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One of Joshua Humphreys's contributions to the design of three
of the first frigates was a structural system of diagonal riders spanning
a ship's lower hull to offset hogging.
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Maurer, Maurer. "Coppered Bottoms for the United States Navy,
1794-1803." United States Naval Institute Proceedings 71
(June 1945): 692-99.
--24--
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Perry, Percival. "The Naval-Stores Industry in the Old South, 1790-1860."
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Pinkowski, Edward. "Joshua Humphreys." In Forgotten Fathers,
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Rachal, William M. E. "When Virginia Owned a Shipyard: The
Story of the Norfolk Naval Shipyard at Portsmouth to the Time of
Its Purchase by the United States in 1801." Virginia Cavalcade 2 (Autumn
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Roosevelt, Franklin D. "Our First Frigates: Some Unpublished Facts
about Their Construction." Transactions of the Society of Naval Architects
and Marine Engineers 22 (1914): 139-53.
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Stanton, Elizabeth B. "Builders of the First American Navy." Journal
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Correspondence of Josiah Fox attesting to his role in the construction
of the first naval ships.
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Todd, Thomas A. "USF CONSTELLATION as She May Have Appeared
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(June 1985): 55-67.
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Tucker, Spencer, D. "Arming the Fleet: Early Cannon Founders to
the United States Navy." American Neptune 45 (Winter 1985): 35-40.
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__________________. Arming the Fleet: U.S. Navy Ordnance in the Muzzle-Loading
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Westlake, Merle T., Jr. "Josiah Fox, Gentleman, Quaker, Shipbuilder."
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 88 (July
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Josiah Fox's major contributions to the design and construction
of the first ships for the U.S. Navy.
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Wood, Virginia Steel. Live Oaking: Southern Timber for Tall Ships.
1981. Reprint. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1995. 206 pp.
--25--
Naval Operations
Documents
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"American Naval Affairs, 1798-1802." Bulletin of the New York Public
Library 11 (September 1907): 411-19.
Benjamin Stoddert sends instructions to Commodore Richard
Dale that authorize the capture of French armed vessels.
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Truxtun, Thomas. Instructions, Signal, and Explanations, Offered for
the United States Fleet. Baltimore: Printed by John Hayes, 1797. 38 pp.
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______________ Remarks, Instructions, and Examples Relating to the Latitude &
Longitude; also the Variation of the Compass. Philadelphia: Printed by
T. Dobson, 1794. 31 pp.
Includes appendices on masts and the general duties of officers of
ships of war.
Secondary Literature
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Emmons, George F., comp. The Navy of the United States, from the
Commencement, 1775-1853; with a Brief History of Each Vessel's Service
and Fate as Appears upon Record. Washington: Gideon & Co.,
1853. 208 pp.
--26--
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Harmon, Judd S. "Suppress and Protect: The United States Navy,
the African Slave Trade, and Maritime Commerce, 1794-1862."
Ph.D. diss., College of William and Mary, 1977. 282 pp.
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Hollis, Ira N. The Frigate Constitution: The Central Figure of the Navy
under Sail. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931. 285 pp.
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Martin, Tyrone G. A Most Fortunate Ship: A Narrative History of "Old
Ironsides." Rev. ed. Chester, Conn.: Globe Pequot Press, 1982. 388 pp.
Relations with Barbary Powers
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United States Office of Naval Records and Library. Naval Documents
Related to the United States Wars with the Barbary Powers: Naval
Operations Including Diplomatic Background from 1785 through 1807.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1939-44. 6 vols.
--27--
Secondary Literature
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Allen, Gardner W. Our Navy and the Barbary Corsairs. 1905.
Reprint. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1965. 354 pp.
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Anderson, R. C. "Tripoli and Tunis: The Americans in the Mediterranean,
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Barnby, H. G. The Prisoners of Algiers: An Account of the Forgotten
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Bartlett, Harley H. "American Captivities in Barbary." Michigan
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Relates the captures of Americans by the Barbary powers and
diplomatic efforts to end them.
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Carr, James A. "John Adams and the Barbary Problem: The Myth
and the Record." American Neptune 26 (October 1966): 231-57.
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Chidsey, Donald B. The Wars in Barbary: Arab Piracy and the Birth of
the United States Navy. New York: Crown, 1971. 165 pp.
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Dudley, William S. "The Origins of the U.S. Navy's Mediterranean
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Field, James A., Jr. American and the Mediterranean World, 1776-1882.
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Folayan, Kola. Tripoli during the Reign of Yūsuf Pāshā Qaramānlī.
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Gibbons, Patrick J. "Corsairs, Privateers, and Pirates: A Reconsideration
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of Virginia, 1993. 101 pp.
--28--
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Hunt, Livingston. "Bainbridge under the Turkish Flag." United
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Bainbridge's humiliating treatment at the hands of the Barbary powers.
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Irwin, Ray W. The Diplomatic Relations of the United States with the
Barbary Powers, 1776-1816. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Press, 1931. 225 pp.
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Kitzen, Michael L. S. Tripoli and the United States at War: A History
of American Relations with the Barbary States, 1785-1805. Jefferson,
N.C.: McFarland, 1993. 203 pp.
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Kortpeter, Carl M. "The United States Encounters the Middle
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Revue d'Histoire Maghrebine (Tunisia) 1 (December 1983): 301-13.
Traces the extensive official and private contracts, financial holdings,
and private interests of the United States in the Middle East.
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Tucker, Glenn. Dawn Like Thunder: The Barbary Wars and the Birth
of the U.S. Navy. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963. 487 pp.
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United States Office of Naval Records and Library. Register of Officer
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Van Alstyne, Richard W. "The Mediterranean Trade and the Barbary
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Whilpple, A. B. C. To the Shores of Tripoli: The Birth of the U.S. Navy
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WIlson, Gary E. "The First American Hostages in Moslem Nations,
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--29--
Quasi-War with France
Documents
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"Extract from the Log of the Frigate ." Proceedings of the
Massachusetts Historical Society 20 (June 1883): 269-74.
Engagement with French Navy corvette Berceau.
-
McKee, Christopher, ed. "Constitution in the Quasi-War with
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Neptune 27 (April 1967): 135-49.
A midshipman's letters to his father reporting events while on
Constitution.
-
Murray, William Vans. "Letters of William Vans Murray to John
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Murray's diplomatic efforts to resolve differences with France.
-
United States Office of Naval Records and Library. Naval Documents
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Government Printing Office, 1935-1938. 7 vols.
--30--
Secondary Literature
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Allen, Gardner, W. "The Boston and the Berceau." Proceedings of the
Massachusetts Historical Society 65 (October 1933): 163-68.
History of the capture, detention, and return of the French navy
corvette Berceau.
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_______________. Our Naval War with France. 1909. Reprint. Hamden, Conn.:
Archon Books, 1967. 323 pp.
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Anderson William G. "John Adams, the Navy, and the Quasi-War
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-
DeConde, Alexander. The Quasi-War: The Politics and Diplomacy of
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Dunn, Lucius. "The Frigate Constellation Puts to Sea." United
States Naval Institute Proceedings 74 (August 1948): 1004-7.
-
Dunne, W. M. P. "The Constellation and the Hermione." Mariner's
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A mutineer from HMS Hermione enlisted in Constellation and incited
mutinous talk in the U.S. frigate between June and August
1798 until he was discovered.
-
Hill, Peter P. William Vans Murray, Federalist Diplomate: The Shaping
of Peace with France, 1797-1801. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University
Press, 1971. 241 pp.
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Kihn, Phyllis. "The French San Domingo Prisoners in Connecticut."
Connecticut Historical Society Bulletin 28 (April 1963): 47-63.
The capture of French schooner la Vengeance by U.S. sloop of war
Trumbull and the subsequent holding of the prisoners from la
Vengeance in Connecticut.
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Knight, David C. The Naval War with France, 1798-1800. New
York: Franklin Watts, 19i70. 72 pp.
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Kyte, George W., ed. "Guns for Charleston: A Case of Lend-Lease
in 1798-1799." Journal of Southern History 14 (August 1948): 401-8.
--31--
The British loaned cannon and shot to America during the Quasi-War
with France. Includes the correspondence of Robert Liston,
Lord Grenville, and Timothy Pickering.
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Leiner, Frederick C. "Anatomy of a Prize Case: Dollars, Side-Deals,
and Les Deux Anges." American Journal of Legal History 39 (April
1995): 1-19.
The frigate Boston's capture of the prize les Deux Anges and the
subsequent litigation, which went all the way to the United States
Supreme Court between Captains George Little and Silas Talbot.
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________________. "The Baltimore Merchants' Warships" Maryland and Patapsco
in the Quasi-War with France." Maryland Historical Magazine 88 (Fall
1993): 260-85.
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Martin, Tyrone G. "Underway Replenishment, 1799-1800." American
Neptune 46 (Summer 1986): 159-64.
How the Constitution maintained its station and replenished supplies.
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Morgan, Mike. "The Remarkable Frigate L'Insurgente." Nautical
Research Journal 20 (April 1974): 134-37.
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Palmer, Michael A. Stoddert's War: Naval Operations During the
Quasi-War with France, 1798-1801. Columbia: University of South
Carolina Press, 1987. 313 pp.
-
Russo, John Paul. "Hull's First Victory, One Painting: Three Famous
Men." American Neptune 25 (January 1965): 29-34.
Lieutenant Isaac Hull captured French privateer Sandwich in May 1800.
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Savageau, David LePere. "The United States Navy and Its 'Half-War'
Prisoners, 1798-1801." American Neptune 31 (July 1971): 159-76.
Treatment and disposition of captured French privateersmen.
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Stansbury, David B. "The Quasi-War with France." Naval History 6
(Fall 1992): 16-21.
-
Stott, A. C. "Early Naval Strategy." United States Naval Institute
Proceedings 62 (February 1936): 229-30.
Navigating abilities of Thomas Truxtun.
--32--
-
Van Alstyne, Richard W. "The Naval War with France, 1798-1800."
In American Diplomacy in Action: A Series of Case Studies. 2d
3d. Stanford Books in World Politics. 420-32. Palo Alto: Stanford
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Votaw, Homer C. "The Sloop-of-War Ganges." United States Naval
Institute Proceedings 98 (July 1972): 82-84.
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Welsh, Donald N. "The Quasi-War with France and the Creation
of the United States Navy." Master's thesis, University of Akron,
1940. 81 pp.
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Wood, Daniel N. "The All-Volunteer Force in 1798." United
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Impressment and Relations with Great Britain
Documents
-
Message from the President of the United States, Accompanying
Sundry Papers Relative to the Impressment of American Seamen, from on
Board Public Armed Vessels of the United States, by Vessels of War
Belonging to the King of Great-Britain. . . . 8 January 1799. Philadelphia:
J. Gales, 1799. 8 pp.
--33--
-
Phillips, Isaac. An Impartial Examination of the Case of Captain Isaac
Phillips, Late of the Navy, and Commander of the United States Sloop of
War Baltimore and Compiled from Original Documents and Records, with
the Proceedings upon His Application to be Restored to His Rank in the
United States Navy. Baltimore: Benjamin Edes, 1825. 119 pp.
Secondary Literature
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Campbell, John F. "The Havana Incident." American Neptune 22
October 1962): 264-76.
British impressment of fifty-five sailors from USS Baltimore ln 16
November 1798.
-
Jackson, Scott Thomas. "Impressment and Anglo-American Discord,
1787-1818." Ph.D. diss. University of Michigan, 1976. 507 pp.
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Palmer, Michael A. "Anglo-American Naval Cooperation,
1798-1801." 4 (Summer 1990)P 14-20.
-
_______________. "The Dismission of Capt. Isaac Phillips." American Neptune
45 (Spring 1985): 94-103.
The captain of the USS i>Baltimore in 1798 who permitted his vessel
to be boarded by a Royal Navy officer and fifty-five sailors to be pressed.
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Perkins, Bradford. The First Rapprochement: England and the United
States, 1795-1805. 1955. Reprint. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University
of California Press, 1967. 257 pp.
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Teignmouth, Henry N. S. "British Protection of American Shipping
in the Mediterranean, 1784-1810." United Service Magazine n.s.
60 (December 1919): 169-78.
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Zimmerman, James F. Impressment of American Seamen. 1925.
Reprint. Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1966. 279 pp
--34--
The Officer Corps
General
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Bradford, James C., ed. Command Under Sail: Makers of the American
Naval Tradition, 1775-1850. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press,
1985. 333 pp.
Studies of the naval officers who served in the navy during the
Federalist period include William Bainbridge, John Barry, Stephen
Decatur, Jr., Isaac Hull, Thomas Macdonough, Oliver Hazard Perry,
Edward Preble, David Porter, and John Rodgers.
-
Cooper, James Fenimore. Lives of Distinguished American Naval
Officers. 2 vols. in one. Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1946. 252 pp., 264 pp.
-
Guttridge, Leonard F., and Jay D. Smith. The Commodores. 1969.
Reprint. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1984. 340 pp.
Discusses the formative years of the U.S. Navy and its officers in
the first six chapters.
--35--
-
McKee, Christopher. A Gentlemanly and Honorable Profession: The
Creation of the U.S. Naval Officer Corps, 1794-1815. Annapolis: Naval
Institute Press, 1991. 60 pp.
-
Pratt, Fletcher. Preble's Boys: Commodore Preble and the Birth of
American Sea Power. New York: William Sloane, 1950. 419 pp.
Contains short histories of the following officers whose careers
began during the Federalist period: William Bainbridge, James Biddle,
Johnston Blakeley, William Burrows, Stephen Cassin, Isaac
Chauncey, Stephen Decatur, Jr., Isaac Hull, Jacob Jones, James
Lawrence, Thomas Macdonough, Daniel Todd Patterson, David
Porter, Charles Stewart, and Lewis Warrington.
Bainbridge, William
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Dearborn, H. A. S. The Life of William Bainbridge, Esq. of the United
States Navy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1931. 218 pp.
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Long, David F. Ready to Hazard: A Biography of Commodore
William Bainbridge, 1774-1833. Hanover, N.H.: University Press of
New England, 1981. 359 pp.
Barron, James
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Stevens, William Oliver. An Affair of Honor: The Biography of Commodore
James Barron, U.S.N. Chesapeake, Va.: Norfolk County Historical
Society, 1969. 204 pp.
-
Watson, Paul Barron. The Tragic Career of Commodore James Barron,
U.S. Navy (1769-1851). New York: Coward-McCann, 1942. 84 pp.
Barry, John
-
Clark, William Bell. Gallant John Barry, 1745-1803: The Story of a
Naval Hero of Two Wars. New York: Macmillan, 1938. 530 pp.
-
Griffin, Martin I. J. Commodore John Barry, "The Father of the American
Navy": The Record of His Services for Our Country. Philadelphia:
Published by the author, 1903. 424 pp.
-
Gurn, Joseph. Commodore John Barry: Father of the American Navy.
New York: P. J. Kenedy & Sons, 1933. 318 pp.
--36--
Brown, Moses
-
Maclay, Edgar S. Moses Brown, Captain, U.S.N. New York: Baker &
Taylor, 1904. 220 pp.
Dale, Richard
-
Hannon, Bryan. Three American Commodores. New York: Spinner
Press, 1936. 208 pp.
Decatur, Stephen, Jr.
-
Anthony, Irvin. Decatur. New York and London: Scribner, 1931. 319 pp.
-
Lewis, Charles L. The Romantic Decatur. 1937. Reprint. Freeport,
N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1971. 296 pp.
-
Mackenzie, Alexander S. Life of Stephen Decatur, a Commodore in
the Navy of the United States. Boston: Charles C. Little and James
Brown, 1846. 443 pp.
Gordon, Charles
-
Calderhead, William L. "A Strange Career in a Young Navy: Captain
Charles Gordon, 1778-1816." Maryland Historical Magazine 72
(Fall 1977): 373-86.
Hull, Isaac
-
Grant, Bruce. Isaac Hull, Captain of Old Ironsides: The Life and
Fighting Times of Isaac Hull and the U.S. Frigate Constitution. Chicago:
Pellegrini & Cudahy, 1947. 418 pp.
-
Hull, Isaac. Commodore Hull: Papers of Isaac Hull, Commodore,
United States Navy. Edited by Gardner W. Allen. Boston: The Boston
Athenaeum, 1929. 341 pp.
-
Maloney, Linda M. The Captain from Connecticut: The Life and
Naval Times of Isaac Hull. Boston: Northeastern University Press,
1986. 549 pp.
-
Molloy, Leo T., comp. Commodore Isaac Hull, U.S.N., His Life and
Times. Derby, Conn.: Hull Book Fund, 1964. 244 pp.
--37--
-
Richmond, Helen. Isaac Hull: A Forgotten Hero. Boston: USS Constitution
Museum, 1983. 78 pp.
Lawrence, James
-
Burlington County Cultural and Heritage Commission (New Jersey).
The Captain James Lawrence Symposium Addresses. Burlington,
N.J.: Burlington County Cultural and Heritage Commission, 1983.
35 pp. Partial Contents: William M. Jowler, Jr., "The Navy of the
New Republic, 1783-1815."; William S. Dudley, "Captain James
Lawrence, USN: Fallen Naval Hero." Delivered on 3 October 1981 to
commemorate the 200th anniversary of Lawrence's birth.
-
Gleaves, Albert. James Lawrence, Captain, United States Navy, Commander
of the "Chesapeake." New York: Putnam, 1904. 337 pp.
-
Peabody Museum of Salem. Don't Give Up the Ship": A Catalogue
of the Eugene H. Pool Collection of Captain James Lawrence. Salem,
Mass.: Peabody Museum, 1942. 82 pp.
Porter, David
-
Long, David F. Nothing Too Daring: A Biography of Commodore
David Porter, 1780-1843. Annapolis: United States Naval Institue,
1970. 396 pp.
-
Porter, David D. Memoir of Commodore David Porter of the United
States Navy. Albany, N.Y.: J. Munsell, 1875. 427 pp.
-
Turnbull, Archibald Douglas. Commodore David Porter, 1780-1843.
New York and London: Century, 1929. 326 pp.
Preble, Edward
-
McKee, Christopher. Edward Preble: A Naval Biography, 1761-1807.
Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1972. 394 pp.
--38--
Rodgers, John
-
Paullin, Charles O. Commodore John Rodgers: Captain, Commodore,
and Senior Officer of the American Navy, 1773-1838, a Biography. 1910.
Reprint. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute, 1967. 434 pp.
Talbot, Silas
-
Fowler, William M., Jr. Silas Talbot: Captain of Old Ironsides.
Mystic, Conn.: Mystic Seaport, forthcoming 1995.
-
Tuckerman, Henry T. The Life of Silas Talbot: A Commodore in the
Navy of the United States. New York: J. C. Riker, 1850. 137 pp.
Truxtun, Thomas
-
Eller, Ernest M. "Truxtun--the Builder." United States Naval Institute
Proceedings 63 (October 1937): 1445-52.
Truxtun supervised the construction, rigging, and fitting out of
Constellation and drew up the frigate's organization bills, orders,
and regulations.
-
Ferguson, Eugene S. Commodore Thomas Truxtun, 1755-1822: A
Description of the Truxtun-Biddle Letters in the Collections of the Library
Company of Philadelphia. Philadelphia: Free Library of Philadelphia,
1947. 31 pp.
Letters written by Thomas Truxtun to Charles Biddle from 1 December
1787 to 21 October 1820.
-
_______________. Truxtun of the Constellation: The Life of Commodore Thomas
Truxtun, U.S. Navy, 1755-1822. 1956. Reprint. Annapolis: Naval Institute
Press, 1982. 322 pp.
-
Robison, S. S. "Commodore Thomas Truxtun, U.S. Navy." United
States Naval Institute Proceedings 58 (April 1932): 541-54.
--39--
Enlisted Personnel
-
Hoxse, John The Yankee Tar: An Authentic Narrative of the Voyages
and Hardships of John Hoxse and the Cruises of the U.S. Frigate Constellation.
Northampton, Mass.: Printed by John Metcalf for the author,
1840. 200 pp.
-
Langley, Harold D. "The Negro in the Navy and Merchant Service,
1798-1860." Journal of Negro History 52 (October 1967): 273-86.
-
McKee, Christopher. "Fantasies of Mutiny and Murder: A Suggested
Psycho-History of the Seaman in the United States Navy,
1798-1815." Armed Forces and Society 4 (Winter 1978): 293-304.
--40--
Uniforms
-
McBarron, H. Charles, and James C. Tily, "United States Navy,
1797 Full Dress." Military Collector & Historian 15 (Fall 1963): 80-81.
-
Magruder, John H., III. "U.S. Marine Corps, 1797-1804." Military
Collector & Historian 8 (Spring 1956): 15-16.
-
Tily, James C. "Uniform for the Navy of the United States, 1797."
Military Collector & Historian 15 (Winter 1963): 122-23.
-
___________. The Uniforms of the United States Navy. New York:
T. Yoseloff, 1964. 338 pp.
--41--
Naval Discipline, Education, and Medicine
-
Burr, Henry L. Education in the Early Navy. Philadelphia: Published
by the author, 1939. 228 pp.
-
Langley, Harold D. "Edward Field: A Pioneer Practitioner of the
Old Navy." Connecticut Medicine 46 (November 1982): 667-72.
-
________________. "Medical Men of the Old Navy: A Study in the Development
of a Profession, 1797-1833." In New Aspects of Naval History:
Selected Papers from the 5th Naval History Symposium, edited by the
Department of History United States Naval Academy, 69-79. Baltimore:
Nautical and Aviation Publishing Co, of America 1985.
-
________________. Medicine in the Early U.S. Navy, 1794-1842. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967. 309 pp.
-
________________. Social Reform in the United States Navy, 1798-1862.
Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1967. 309 pp.
-
Paullin, Charles O. "Dueling in the Old Navy." United States
Naval Institute Proceedings 35 (December 1909): 1155-97.
-
Pleadwell, Frank L. "Edward Cutbush, M.D.: The Nestor of the
Medical Corps of the Navy." Annals of Medical History 5 (December
1923): 337-86.
--42--
-
Roddis, Louis H. "Naval Medicine in the Early Days of the Republic."
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 16 (April
1961): 103-23.
-
Valle, James E. Rocks & Shoals: Order and Discipline in the Old Navy
1800-1861. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1980 341 pp.
Naval Art
-
Smith, Edgar Newbold. American Naval Broadsides: A Collection of
Early Naval Prints (1745-1815). Philadelphia: Philadelphia Maritime
Museum, 1974. 225 pp.
-
Truxtun-Decatur Naval Museum, Washington, D.C. Commodores
Thomas Truxtun and Stephen Decatur and the Navy of Their Time: An
Exhibition, Spring & Summer, 1950. Washington: Th Truxtun-Decatur
Naval Museum, 1950. 39 pp.
-
United States National Archives. The Old Navy, 1776-1860: A Catalog
of an Exhibit of Prints and Watercolors from the Naval Collection of
Franklin D. Roosevelt. Washington: National Archives Trust Fund
Board, General Services Administration, 1962. 56 pp.
Two prints in this work pertain to the Federalist period: one depicts
the building of the frigate Philadelphia and the other is a view
of Constellation capturing l'Insurgente.
--43--
-
United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Museum. American
Naval Prints: from the Beverley R. Robinson Collection, U.S. Naval Academy
Museum, Annapolis, Maryland. [Washington]: International
Exhibitions Foundation, 1976. 121 pp.
The sole print applicable to the Federalist period is one of the
American merchant ship Planter beating off a French privateer on
10 July 1799.
Marines
-
Dunn, Lucius C. "The Constellation's FIrst Marine Officer." Maryland
Historical Magazine 43 (September 1948): 210-19.
Lieutenant James Triplett and the first recruiting rendezvous for
Constellation.
-
_____________. "The U.S. Navy's First Seagoing Marine Officer." United
States Naval Institute Proceedings 75 (August 1949): 918-23.
-
McClellan, Edwin N. "First Commandant of the Marine Corps,
William Ward Burrows." Daughters of the American Revolution Magazine
59 (March 1925): 155-59.
--44--
-
_________________. "From 1783-1798." Marine Corps Gazette 7 (September
1922): 273-86.
-
_________________. "The Naval War with France." Marine Corps Gazette 7
(December 1922): 339-64.
-
Magruder, John H., III. "The Pig-Tail Marines." Marine Corps
Gazette 40 (February 1956): 46-7.
Marines and their queues.
Privateering
-
Bonnel, Ulane. "L'Apport Consulaire à la Reglementation de las
Course et les Relations Franco-Américaine." ["Contributions of the
Consulate to the Regulation of Privateers and Franco-American Relations."]
Revue de l'Institut Napoléon 111 (1969): 159-67.
-
____________. La France, les États-Unis et la Guerre de Course (1797-1815).
[France, the United States and the War on Commerce (1797-1815)].
Paris: Nouvelles Éditions Latines, 1961.
--45--
-
Jenkins, H. J. K. "Commerce Raiding and Crisis: Guadeloupe,
1799-1802." American Neptune 54 (Winter 1994): 18-24.
-
Knox, Dudley W. "Private Armed Ships Belonging to Salem,
1799." Essex Institute Historical Collections 71 (1935): 120-27.
-
Maclay, Edgar S. A History of American Privateers. New York: D.
Appleton, 1899. 519 pp.
-
Peler, John D. "Armed Merchantmen and Privateers: Another
Perspective on America's Quasi-War with France." American Neptune
50 (Fall 1990): 270-80.
The defensive role of the American merchant marine in protecting
American commerce.
-
Phillips, James D. "Salem's Part in the Naval War with France."
New England Quarterly 16 (December 1943): 543-66.
--46--
Index of Authors
Note: Numerals refer to numbered items in the bibliography.
Adams, John, 128
Albion, Robert G., 4, 26
Allen, Gardner W., 82, 105, 106, 156
Anderson, R.C., 83
Anderson, William G., 5, 6, 107
Anthony, Irvin, 151
Baker, Maury, 42
Barnby, H. G., 84
Barrows, John S., 43
Bartlett, Harley H., 85
Bass, William P., 44
Bauer, K. Jack, 22, 45
Bemis, Samuel Flagg, 30
Bolander, L.H., 7
Bonnel, Ulane, 200, 201
Bradford, James C., 137
Brewington, Marion V., 39
Burlington County Cultural and Heritage Commission, 160
Burr, Henry L., 181
Calderhead, William L. 154
Calkins, Carlos Gilman, 8
Campbell, John F., 130
Carr, James A., 86
Carrigg, John Joseph, 27, 28
Carter, Edward C., II, 9
Chapelle, Howard I., 46
Chidsey, Donald B., 87
Clark, William Bell, 146
Coletta, Paolo E., 28
Cooper, James Fenimore, 138
Crackel, Theodore, J., 29
Dearborn, H. A. S., 142
DeConde, Alexander, 108
Dudley, William S., 88, 160
Dunn, Lucius C., 109, 194, 195
Dunne, W. M. P., 47, 110
|
Eddy, Richard, 48
Eller, Ernest M., 170
Emery, William M., 49
Emmons, George F., 77
Ferguson, Eugene S., 50, 51, 171, 172
Field, James A., Jr., 89
Fisher, Charles R., 52, 53
Folayan, Kola, 90
Ford, Henry J., 30
Ford, Worthington Chauncey, 103
Fowler, William M., Jr., 1, 54, 160, 168
Frost, Holloway H, 10
Gibbons, Patrick J., 91
Gilkerson, William, 55, 56
Gillmer, Thomas C., 57
Gleae, Albnert, 161
Gorr, Louis F., 58
Grant, Bruce, 155
Griffin Martin I. J., 147
Gurn, Joseph, 148
Guttridge, Leonard F., 139
Hagan, Kenneth J., 17
Hannon, Bryan, 150
Harmon, Judd S., 78
Hayes, Frederic H., 11
Henrich, Joseph G., 12
Hill, Peter P., 111
Hollis, Ira N., 79
Hose, John, 174
Hull, Isaac, 156
Humphreys, Henry H., 59
Hunt, Livington, 92
Irwin, Ray W., 93
Jackson, Scott Thomas, 131
Jenkins, H. J. K., 202
Jones, Robert F., 31
|
--47--
Kelly, John Joseph, Jr., 13
Kihn, Phyllis, 112
Kitzen, Michael L. S., 94
Knight, David C., 113
Knox, Dudley W., 203
Kortepeter, Carl M., 95
Kyte, George W., 114
Laing, Alexander, 60
Langley, Harold D., 175, 182, 183, 184, 185
Leiner, Frederick C., 61, 115, 116
Lewis, Charles L., 152
Long, David F., 2, 143, 163
McBarron, HJ. Charles, 177
McClellan, Edwin N., 196, 197, 198
McKee, Christopher, 102, 140, 166, 176
Mackenzie, Alexander S., 153
Maclay, Edgar S., 149, 204
Magruder, John H, III, 178, 199
Maloney, Linda M., 157
Martin, Tyrone G., 62, 80, 117
Maurer, Maurer, 63
Millis, Walter, 23
Molloy, Leo T., 158
Morgan, Mike, 118
Murray, William Vans, 103
Nash, Howard P., Jr., 3
O'Connor, Raymond G., 14
Palmer, Michael A., 119, 132, 133
Paullin, Charles O., 32, 33, 167, 186
Peabody Museum of Salem, 162
Pelzer, John D., 205
Perkins, Bradford, 134
Perry, Percival, 64
Phillips, Isaac, 129
Phillips, James D., 206
Pinkowski, Edward, 65
Pleadwell, Frank L., 187
Porter, David D., 164
Pratt, Fletcher, 141
Rachal, William M. E, 66
Richmond, Helen, 159
Roach, John C., 62
Robison, S. S., 173
|
Roche, John, Jr., 102
Roddis, Louis H., 188
Rogers, George C., 15
Rohr, John A., 16
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 67
Rosenberger, frrancis, C., 58
Russo, John Paul, 120
Savageau, David Le Pere, 121
Scheina, Robert L., 34
Sharrer, G. Terry, 17
Smelser, Marshall, 18
Smith, Edgar Newbold, 190
Smith, Jay D., 139
Smith, Philip C. F., 41
Sofaer, Abraham D., 19
Sprout, Harold 20
Sprout, Margaret, 20
Stansbury, David B., 122
Stanton, Elizabeth B., 68
Steiner, Bernard C., 35
Stevens, William Oliver, 144
Stoddert, Bengamin, 23, 24, 74
Stott, A. C., 123
Symonds, Craig L., 21
Teighnouth, Henryt N. S., 135
Tily, James C., 177, 179, 180
Todd, Thomas A., 69
Truxtun, Thomas, 75, 76
Truxtun-Decatur Naval Museum, Washington, D.C., 191
Tucker, Glenn, 96
Tucker, Spencer C., 70, 71
Tuckerman, Henry T., 169
Turnbull, Archibald Douglas, 165
Turner, Harriot Stoddert, 36
United States Congress, 25
United States National Archives, 192
United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md., 193
United States Office of Naval Records and Library, 81, 97, 104
Valle, James E., 189
Van Alstyne, Richard W., 98, 124
Votaw, Homer C., 125
Ward, Harry M., 37
|
--48--
Watson, Paul Barron, 145
Welsh, Donald N., 126
Wetlake, Merle T., Jr., 72
Whipple, A. B. C., 99
White, Leonard D., 38
|
Wilson, Gary E., 100
Wood, Daniel N., 127
Wood, Virginia Steele, 73
Zimmerman, James F., 136
|
--49--
Notes
1.
John Paul Jones to Robert Morris, 17 Oct. 1776, Naval Documents of the
American Revolution, edited by William Bell Clark et al., 9 vols. to date
(Washington: Naval Historical Center, 1964-), 6:1303.
2.
Thomas Jefferson to James Monroe, 11 Aug. 1786, in The Papers of Thomas
Jefferson, edited by Julian P. Boyd et al., 25 vols. to date (Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1950-), 10:225.
3.
"The Federalist Number 41," in The Papers of James Madison, edited by
William T. Hutchinson et al., 17 vols to date (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1962-), 10:395.
4.
John Paul Jones to François-Louis Teissèdre de Fleury, ca. Dec. 1787,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
5.
George Washington, Fifth Annual Address to Congress," 3 Dec. 1793, in
The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745-1799,
edited by John C. Fitzpatrick, 39 vols. (Washington: Government Printing
Office, 1931-1944), 33:166.
6.
United States Congress, American State Papers, Documents, Legislative and
Executive, of the Congress of the United States, 38 vols. (Washington:
Gale and Seaton, 1832-1861), Class VI, Naval Affairs, 1:5.
7.
Ibid., 6.
8.
Henry Knox to George Washington, 15 April 1794, George Washington Papers,
Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
9.
George Washington, "Eighth Annual Address," 7 Dec. 1796. in A Compilation
of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897, compiled by James
D. Richardson, 10 vols. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1896-1899),
1:201.
10.
John Adams, "First Annual Address," 22 Nov. 1797, in ibid., 251.
11.
United States Naval History Division, Dictionary of American Naval Fighting
Ships, edited by James L. Mooney et al., 8 vols. (Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1959-1981), 3:17, s.v.
Ganges.
12.
Craig L. Symonds, Navalists and Antinavalists: The Naval Policy Debate in the
United States, 1785-1827 (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1980), 72.
13.
Michael A. Palmer, "Anglo-American Naval Cooperation, 1798-1801,"
Naval History 4 (Summer 1990): 14-20.
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